Reviewing the most bizarre translations of Spanish film titles

While the opening credits start to run, it is worth mentioning that it is usually the marketing team who takes the task of translating film titles. These adapt to the target culture, although some choices seem almost impossible to understand. Let’s see some examples.

Ice Princess

Many remember dearly this Disney film about a young girl with a passion for figure skating. The Spanish title is quite creative: Soñando, soñando... triunfé patinando (“Dreaming, dreaming… I succeeded at skating”). The rhyme here is just brilliant.

Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind

The title of this film is so delicate and poetic. But dreaming, dreaming… we will reach the Spanish version: ¡Olvídate de mí! Literally, “Forget about me!”. Quite rude, isn’t it? Someone was feeling aggressive that day. The Italian version is really straightforward too: Se mi lasci ti cancello. “If you leave me, I’ll delete you”. It is certainly difficult to forget these peculiar adaptations of the romantic drama film we all know and love.

Shaun of the Dead

This zombie comedy film took a strange turn in Spain. The Spanish film title is still in English, but with a whole new layer to it. Shaun of the Dead becomes Zombies party in Spain. Why, though? Nobody knows. They must have had quite a lot of fun choosing that name for the film.

Braindead

In Spain, we love a good subtitle. The one for Braindead, the 1992 film directed by Peter Jackson, will not go unnoticed: Tu madre se ha comido a mi perro, which literally means “Your mother has eaten my dog”. Apart from including gore sequences, the Spanish version of Braindead also spoils a whole scene. Such a bloody adaptation of the film title.

White Chicks

Explaining the title of this film in Spanish is slightly embarrassing. It is something on the lines of “Two manly ‘blonde girls’”. The “manly” here actually says de pelo en pecho, a Spanish expression literally meaning “with hair on the chest”. There are so many things to unpack here. Maybe another day.

The Pacifier

In Spain, this North American comedy film took the name of Un canguro superduro. Literally, “A super tough babysitter”. Once again, Spaniards seem to enjoy the rhyme. Let us indulge in this poetic inclination.

Hangover

Apparently, the title of this famous film trilogy seemed too dull for the Spanish audience. Hence, they renamed it as Resacón en Las Vegas, which could be translated as “Super hangover in Las Vegas”. Why do we exaggerate things so much in Spain? What does it tell us about the Spanish culture?

We came here to have fun and remember some films from the past, so we don’t need to think too much about it either. This trilogy had strange adaptations in other countries too, like in the case of France, where they named it Very Bad Trip. Just like in Zombies Party, they used random words in English and called it a day. Good for them.

Beetlejuice

After such a bad trip, the team in charge of translating the title of this fantasy horror comedy film was just not feeling it. Probably, one of them mentioned Beetlejuice and other responded with a Spanish accent: “Yeah, sure… Bitelchús”. And that’s how they called it, writing it in the Spanish style. Olé!

Translate it “as you can”

There are so many billboards with funny film titles in Spanish that would grant us a good laugh, but the end credits are about to appear on the screen. And this is not Marvel, so there is no post-credits scene. To end with, it is worth mentioning a peculiar occurrence of several films that travel to Spain: the como puedas effect. It means “as you can”, and it is attached to many film titles for no particular reason. Some examples would be Airplane!, or Aterriza como puedas (“Land as you can”) in Spanish; or The Naked Gun, which was translated as Agárralo como puedas (“Grab it as you can”) in Spain. Do as you can with this information.

A familiar song begins to overshadow the dialogue. A slow zoom out takes us away from the scene, displaying a series of landscapes and movie sets we have visited so many times, either through a screen or on our own imagination. The end credits start to roll, and the footage fades to black. But what does it matter? At the end of the day, we can always rewind.

What attracts visitors to Spain the most

Tapas and cold beer

It is often said that to win someone’s heart is through their stomach. Spain needs only offer morsels of its cuisine, namely its famous tapas, to seduce both tourists and Spaniards alike. There are tapas for all tastes, including tortilla (Spanish omelette), Russian salad, bravas (potatoes), cold meats and olives. Who could turn down a good tapa, especially if it is free of charge, accompanied by a cold glass of beer?

Nightlife

One of Spain’s main attractions is its party spirit. While bars and discotheques in other countries might close earlier, Spain keeps the party going all night long until the break of dawn. The perfect way to end the night or, depending on one’s point of view, begin the day is with a cup of Spain’s famous hot chocolate and churros.

The friendliness of its people

This is a reason to feel proud. Foreigners usually highlight the hospitality, friendliness and good sense of humour of the Spanish people. The language barrier is hardly a challenge for Spaniards, mostly because of their talent to be understood, whether through words or gestures.

Spain’s delicious cuisine

The secret to Spanish gastronomy lies in its variety and unbeatable quality, aspects that make Spain stand out in the world’s gastronomic rankings. Spain has also spawned a great number of internationally renowned chefs.

The Way of Saint James

Though this important pilgrimage route can be picked up at various points, all routes lead to the Galician city of Santiago de Compostela. Owing to its cultural, historical and spiritual significance, The Way of Saint James (or Camino de Santiago) draws millions of people from around the world. Walking the pilgrimage trails through extraordinary landscapes towards Santiago de Compostela is an indelible experience.

Spain’s beloved islands

Fascinating Ibiza, land of parties and beaches par excellence, is by far the most popular destination for tourists. Nevertheless, Spain’s other islands are no less amazing and welcome a great number of visitors all year long. And it is no mystery as to why. Spain offers every type of beach imaginable, including the white sands and crystal-clear waters of the Balearic Islands, the exotic volcanic beaches of the Canary Islands and the mysterious Beach of the Cathedrals in Lugo.

Flamenco rhythm

This one-of-a-kind musical genre cannot be omitted from any list of Spain’s attractions. Foreigners enjoy flamenco so much that it has even taken root in countries like Japan. Nothing matches the energy of fervent heel tapping, strumming guitars and the emotion expressed in flamenco singing.

Fabulous climate

Although Spain’s geography is diverse and all types of environments may be found, most people agree that Spain has an unmatched climate. The Mediterranean climate of mild winters and hot summers is popular for many people.

A good nap

Though Spaniards may not take as many naps as some people might believe, they do however take them quite frequently. And after a big lunch, there is nothing like falling into the arms of Morpheus on a good siesta.

A wide array of culture

Spain seems to have it all, and that is a fact. Spain is celebrated for its elegant architecture, world famous museums, and its traditional festivals like the Seville Fair and Holy Week. Spain’s painters, architects and screen actors manifest the Spanish spirit that enthralls people from around the world.

An intriguing language

There is no other sound more powerful than the Spanish rolling ‘r’. Foreigners love it, and Spaniards love it when others try to copy it. Spaniards have words for everything, and though it may not be a matter of great pride, the Spanish lexicon includes an endless stream of colourful invective.

You can also read this article in Spanish here.

On the same day, other traditional celebrations take place in Spain, such as Fiestas del Pilar in Zaragoza or Reina de la Hispanidad in Guadalupe, Extremadura. But the 12th October does not close borders and goes beyond the Atlantic; where several places in South America also celebrate the Día de la Hispanidad. A coincidence that makes one wonder about the origin of such a commemoration.

Origins of Día de la Hispanidad: the encounter between two worlds

It is difficult to overlook the fact that Día de la Hispanidad commemorates the arrival of Christopher Columbus on the American continent on October 12, 1492. This date marked a turning point in the history of both Spain and the world. Not for nothing did it bring contact between two totally different worlds: Europe and America.

This historical event is commonly known as the discovery of America. However, the term "discovery" has not been free of controversy in recent decades. This is a concept that tends to suppress the existence of a territory and a civilisation prior to the arrival of the European conquerors. Throughout the 20th century, the date of October 12 was gradually institutionalised as an attempt to make claims associated with nationalist values and pride; as seen from Eurocentrism, which were the European roots of civilisation.

Far from such negative connotations, this date is now regarded as the meeting between two worlds through a holiday that has developed over time. October 12th is of great importance in the Hispanic world and its significance goes beyond the Iberian Peninsula. Since the last century, many Latin American countries have also joined this celebration. Although each one calls it by a different name: Discovery of the Two Worlds Day (Chile), American Cultural Diversity Day (Argentina), Indigenous Resistance Day (Nicaragua and Venezuela). The UN has also joined this celebration by calling it Spanish Language Day.

Background of Día de la Hispanidad, the National Day of Spain

It was on the 400th anniversary of the "discovery", in 1892 and under the rule of Queen Maria Christina, that a Royal Decree proposed to make this event coincide with the celebration of the National Day. Since then, every October 12th, commemorative dialogues have been established between the Hispanic peoples. These had political, religious, historical and artistic themes.

The first time that October 12 was proposed as Día de la Hispanidad was in 1935; during the government of the Second Republic. Although it was not until 1958 that the day was officially established as a holiday. Under Franco's dictatorship, it was originally called "Día de la Raza" (Day of the Race); with a symbolism very close to the ideas of the regime and a celebration similar to that of the National Labour Day on July 18. Curiously enough, this name predates the dictatorship and was the most common name in South America for the occasion until recently.

With the arrival of democracy in Spain, the debate arose as to whether it was appropriate to change Spain's National Day to December 6; the date on which the recent 1978 Constitution was approved. However, the 1987 Act definitively established October 12 as the holiday associated with the Discovery.

Several names for the same celebration

Since October 12 was established as a national holiday in 1892, several denominations have followed one another throughout the 20th century, taking into account the context of political domination. During the Spanish Restoration (1875-1902), the notion of Hispanidad acquired its formal expression. This highlighted the value of universality that allowed the unity of Spain and America based on the language, religion and culture inherited from the empire.

In any case, in Spain the designation "Fiesta de la Raza" was originally chosen. A proposal made by the President of the Ibero-American Union and former Spanish Minister Faustino Rodríguez-San Pedro in 1913. In this respect, the concept of race weighed on the formation of a category of Hispanic "being"; considering cultural and symbolic components of ethnic groups.

The term Hispanidad was recovered in the 1920s and 30s thanks to the priest Zacarías de Vizcarra. The contribution of the intellectual and Spanish ambassador to Argentina, Ramiro de Maetzu, was also a key aspect here. In 1935, the first celebration of Día de la Hispanidad was held, and it remained so during the dictatorship. However, the decree signed by King Alfonso XIII in 1918 remained in force for more than forty years. It established the name of "Fiesta de la Raza". Finally, in 1958, this confusion was corrected by changing the name of the holiday to Día de la Hispanidad.

Although the celebration of October 12 is now commonly recognized as Día de la Hispanidad, the 1987 Act abolished it definitively and replaced it with Fiesta Nacional de España. According to BOE ("Official State Gazette"), the date chosen "symbolises the historical event in which Spain, on the verge of completing a process of building the state on the basis of our cultural and political plurality, and the integration of the kingdoms of Spain into the same monarchy, begins a period of linguistic and cultural projection beyond European borders".

Military parade and tribute to the national flag on Día de la Hispanidad

Although it is a national holiday throughout the country, the most important event is held in Madrid. Traditionally there is a military parade and a tribute to the national flag. It is attended by the king, the royal family and the most important representatives of all the powers of the state and the autonomous communities.

Curiously, the Fiesta Nacional has nothing to do with the Día de las Fuerzas Armadas ("Day of the Armed Forces"); which is celebrated on May 24. The reason for the military parade every October 12th is explained in the Royal Decree of 1987. It states that it is carried out "in order to enhance the commemoration of the Fiesta Nacional" and "to seek in it the full integration of all the historical and cultural elements that make up the Spanish nation". In this way, the military parade was moved to the day of the Fiesta Nacional; as it "highlights the identification of the Armed Forces with the society they serve, uniting the most brilliant annual act of the Armed Forces with the other celebrations on this day".

Virgen del Pilar Day, patron saint of Aragon and of the Civil Guard

October 12th is also the Day of the Virgen del Pilar, patron saint of Zaragoza and the Community of Aragon. The city celebrates its patron saint's day on the same day with all kinds of religious, recreational and cultural activities. There is a mass in the Basilica del Pilar, a flower offering to the Virgin, a proclamation from the balcony of the town hall, a fair and shows. She is also the patron saint of the Civil Guard and other bodies.

But the Fiesta del Pilar has nothing to do with the discovery of America. It is a coincidence that Christopher Columbus set foot on the same day as the patron saint's celebration. Since then, both festivities coincide on the 12th of October.

Santa María de Guadalupe de Extremadura, Reina de la Hispanidad

Although the Virgen del Pilar is not directly related to the National Day, Santa María de Guadalupe de Extremadura is. She has held the title of Queen of Hispanidad since October 12, 1928; when she was crowned by King Alfonso XIII. Since then, Guadalupe has celebrated the annual Fiesta de la Hispanidad. For example, there is a reminder of this coronation through a series of acts that culminate in the reception of a great parade.

You can also read this article in Spanish and French.

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Top 10 things to do in Spain

1. Hike along the northern coasts

One does not need to be an experienced hiker to enjoy the wonderful natural landscapes of the north. Despite being less touristy than the southern coast, this part of the Iberian Peninsula will charm the traveller with its green, mountainous coastline, which beautifully meets the Cantabrian Sea.

Walking across these wild landscapes, following the fresh winds of the Atlantic and passing by charming fishing villages is just an adventure of a lifetime. Many pilgrims have fallen in love with this journey so far. Indeed, the Northern Way to Santiago goes along the coast and provides the travellers with many paths and places to rest.

2. Explore the vestiges of Al-Andalus

Any list of things to do in Spain should include the great architectural legacy of Al-Andalus. The Muslim reign lasted more than 700 years in Spain, and the traces it left behind have become some of the signature monuments of the country.

Among the most important buildings from the Al-Andalus period anyone should visit at least once in their lives, we must mention the Alhambra and Generalife in Granada, the Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba, La Giralda, Torre del Oro and the Real Alcázar in Seville, the castle of Gormaz in Soria and the Aljafería in Zaragoza.

3. Feel the magic of the white villages

Most people fall in love with the white villages of Andalusia when they first visit them. There is something spellbinding about their whitewashed houses and narrow streets, as well as the authentic Andalusian atmosphere one can breathe there. Besides, they are usually located in beautiful landscapes or surrounded by majestic Andalusian mountains.

Moreover, each of these village has its own essence, and they are all unique for different reasons. For instance, we have Setenil de las Bodegas, which is sheltered by a giant rock. There is also Ronda and its spectacular bridge on top of a cliff, or Zahara de la Sierra, a white treasure scattered on a hillside. Either way, visiting the white villages will be a great thing to cross off the list.

4. Discover secluded beaches on the islands

The Canary Islands and the Balearic Islands are full of breathtaking landscapes with spectacular beaches and coves. Exploring those natural corners is a must for anyone who wishes to experience Spain to the fullest.

Most tourists travel to cities like Mallorca or Las Palmas and just stay there. Those are wonderful destinations with great architecture and cuisine, but it is easy to miss out on the most beautiful natural landscapes if one does not go beyond those crowded places. To that end, we suggest renting a car and embarking on an adventure to discover wild and secluded beaches and enjoy the sea in the most authentic way.

5. Visit an art museum

There are many internationally acclaimed museums in Spain, and visiting them is a great way of diving into Spanish history and culture. Either you like Renaissance paintings or modern art, you can find fascinating museums to enjoy the reality of Spain from a different perspective.

In fact, there are traditional art museums, like the Prado Museum in Madrid, and other equally influential ones, like the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbo, which displays works of contemporary and modern art. If you prefer to focus on specific artists, you can find places like the Picasso Museum of Barcelona too. There is an art museum for every taste in Spain, and they all help us understand different aspects of the country and its people.

6. Plan a route in the Pyrenees

This mountain range marking the natural border with France encompasses some of the most spectacular natural landscapes one can ever see. There are countless hiking routes and paths to explore its valleys and peaks, and one can comfortably choose any of them, depending on difficulty and experience. However, it does not have to be a battle. Kids will love the smooth routes too.

Apart from that, there are lovely towns and villages in the Pyrenees for a nice getaway, such as Aínsa, Isaba, Lanuza, Benasque and Llivia. When the snow falls, these places and the mountains surrounding them provide such a magical sight.

7. Eat delicious Spanish tapas

This might seem a bit obvious, but have you really been to Spain if you haven’t gone out for tapas? This custom lets us experience Spain’s vibrant social life, with its crowded terraces and bars, full of people enjoying a nice time with friends and good food. However, in order to truly experience this cultural aspect of Spain, it is important to become aware of tourist traps and follow the lead of the locals. Eating the tapas Spanish people eat is doubtlessly one of the best things to do in Spain.

8. Taste an authentic Valencian paella

Paella is one of those things foreigners typically link to Spanish culture and gastronomy. However, do not let yourself be fooled by tourist-oriented restaurants trying to sell you overprized, poor-quality paellas. It does not necessarily have to be in Valencia, but eating an authentic paella is a must for anyone visiting Spain, and most people agree that it adds a nice touch to the experience. If you are not into seafood, there are many different variations of this dish for you to try, like the delicious vegetable paella.

9. Attend a flamenco show

Besides paella, flamenco is one of the signature elements of Spanish culture worldwide. This art has its roots in Andalusia, and it is most typical in Seville. If you have the chance to attend a flamenco performance there, we suggest doing so. You can also find authentic flamenco shows in other parts of Spain, though. The easiest way to make sure they are not a scam is asking the locals or checking it on the Internet.

10. Enjoy the Spanish fiesta culture

The word fiesta has many meanings in Spain, and one can find a tailor-made solution to enjoy it. Spain has a vibrant nightlife many travellers find surprising and alluring, and some people fall in love with its nocturnal atmosphere. However, if you prefer having a good night’s sleep, there are countless events and festivities for you as well.

From Holy Week processions to the colourful Carnival of the Canary Islands, including a wide range of music festivals, local celebrations and many more instances to make the most of the lively culture of Spain, the word fiesta is a delightful thing to get to understand in Spain.

The big moment

On New Year's Eve we experience one of the great moments of the year. Not only because we review what we have experienced and allow ourselves to think a little about what we want to achieve in the coming months. Also because we look around us and see the people who are still by our side. We miss people, of course, but this night is still more optimistic than pessimistic. A year is coming to an end, and we remember the bad things, but above all we remember the good things and we bet on the good wishes. We drink to it, we eat to it, and we eat those twelve grapes to get off to a good start the following year. It is one of the oldest traditions we have, and it is present in other parts of the world.

The twelve lucky grapes seem to have originated at the end of the 19th century, or so the latest studies have indicated. The chronicles of 1880 speak of how the people of Madrid were tired of the privacy of the upper bourgeoisie, who held parties to end the year with champagne and grapes as accompaniment, leaving the middle classes behind. As a protest and also as a meeting between these middle classes, they decided to meet, one New Year's Eve, in front of the Puerta del Sol, to mock this tradition of the bourgeoisie eating grapes, except that they did it at the sound of the chimes that marked the beginning of the year.

The story of some farmers in Alicante who took advantage of a surplus of grapes in their harvest to distribute among their acquaintances has also been told for some time, which made this custom popular. Be that as it may, it seems that we can trust the latter in one sense: it was something that arose in one community, and which gradually spread to others.

This custom has grown until it has come to us as we know it: as an annual unmissable event. We sit in front of the TV, choose the channel that best suits our spirit and prepare to follow the correct countdown. The hosts of this event themselves have become symbols, and conversations and anecdotes have circulated around them that are also part of our imagination. Such is the congregational power of this moment.

The celebration party

The way we celebrate the end of the year has changed precisely over the years. New Year's Eve is now understood as a much more social date than a family one. At least, certainly less familiar than Christmas Eve or Christmas Day. When we have eaten those twelve good-luck grapes, once we have wished each other the best among the relatives, millions of people hit the streets. They do so seeking to celebrate and congratulate the New Year to all those they meet. New Year's Eve is, in the end, a great celebration night.

This does not mean that the families have stopped meeting. It is less solemn than it once was, and more and more people are encouraged to make different plans to welcome the new year. A trip to another country, a country house with a few friends, a getaway to another city. We are reinventing the way we celebrate New Year's Eve, which in general terms means what has already been said: a great night out.

Of course, there are plenty of traditions. We are a country of customs. That is why we try to wear red underwear, a colour associated with good luck, a superstition that seems to come from the Middle Ages. We also like to toast with some gold in our glass, in order to attract fortune. And the most important thing: we cannot forget to kiss and hug all the people around us when that new year has started.

The first day of the year

The traditional New Year's meal is very similar to Christmas lunch. Good meat, nice fish, starters to enjoy and a traditional dessert, which will always depend on the region we are in. There is no lack of toasts and Christmas sweets that we have been keeping in our homes for weeks. There is also no lack, even if the night before has gone by, of post-lunch board games, replacements for the New Year's Eve specials which we didn't pay much attention to on New Year's Eve and a good siesta. To start the year with another of the most consolidated and established Spanish traditions, those that do not change over the decades. Because we are a country of customs.

Court songs

This hymn emerged in the 13th century and spread throughout Spain during the 15th and 16th centuries, during the Renaissance. It was a way of collecting the main events of a region that, as an oral tradition, was sung by its inhabitants. However, its origin did not focus solely on the rural environment, although some authors link it to the name, villa, and its inhabitants. Based on love and court themes, they were widely performed in the salons of the nobility and set to music by renowned authors.

In any case, these poems were very successful at the time and constituted one of the three main genres of Spanish popular music, together with Mozarabic cantigas and jarchas. The carols had a similar form to the old French virelai and rondo of the late 13th century. They seem to derive from the Italian villançete by Carvajales, a poet at the court of Alfonso V of Aragon the Magnanimous, and which is recorded in the 15th-century Cancionero de Estúñiga. They were also collected in the Cancionero General, de Palacio, de Linares, de Medinaceli, de la Colombina and de Upsala.

Later they moved on to the religious cantatas that followed one another from the day of the Immaculate Conception to the day of the Epiphany, culminating in Christmas Eve and Christmas Day. The songbooks were filled with carols thanks to notable authors such as Juan del Encina, Francisco Guerrero and Pedro de Escobar. Their Court origin, full of theatrical excesses, took its toll and they were banned from the temples, although they later returned to them. It was at this time that they reached the ordinary people. In the 17th and 18th centuries, they reached great sophistication and included choirs, soloists and stage performances. At the end of the 18th century they were merged with other genres such as the tonadilla, and later with the zarzuela. Later in the 19th century it became established as a Christmas genre sung in churches.

An ode to Christmas

The carol consists of hexasyllabic or octosyllabic verses distributed in a chorus, where the theme is announced. One or more verses, usually round, and one or more turns that through a linking verse repeat the chorus. One of the first carols is attributed to Mateu Fletxa el Vell, born in Prades in Tarragona. It was famous for its ensaladas, compositions for four or five voices designed for the enjoyment of the courtiers and in which different languages are usually mixed. In addition to the more traditional carols, there are some very popular regional ones that are sung in Galicia, such as Bo Nadal, in Catalonia, such as Santa nit or Rabadà, and in Andalusia, such as Corre corre al portalico. Unforgettable are also the Ay del chiquirritín, from Navarre, or the Hacia Belén va una burra, from Castile La Mancha.

Campana sobre campana, of Andalusian origin, Los peces en el río, with its Moorish influence, 25 de desembre Fum, Fum, Fum o Arre Borriquito, are good examples known all over the world. The White Christmas, sung by Bing Crosby, included in the book Record Guinnes for being one of the best-selling songs in history, deserves a special mention. It remained in the hit list for 72 weeks. Silent Night is today the most sung and popular Christmas carol in the world. It was created by an Austrian priest who had to compose a song that could be performed without the accompaniment of the church organ, as it had broken down. It was declared a World Intangible Cultural Asset in 2011.

Carols nowadays

Today, carols are a popular custom and one of the identifying features of Christmas, especially for children. Not so long ago we could see them carrying zambombas and tambourines visiting relatives and neighbours in search of the much appreciated aguinaldo (Christmas bonus) or at least a polvorón. Other instruments were the carraca, the bell or even the bottle of aniseed. The mortar, a metallic mortar used to crush spices or seeds, gave a very characteristic sound when struck, which perfectly accompanied the tune of the carol.

Unfortunately, it is now much more unusual to enjoy this tradition which has been relegated to shopping centres where its sweet melody accompanies shoppers. It should not be forgotten that some great performers have managed to put some Christmas carols on the charts. Mariah Carey and her All I want for Christmas is you, or Bing Crosby and Frank Sinatra who many years before left their contribution.

23 December 1881: Juan Ramón Jiménez is born

The day before Christmas Eve was born in Moguer (Huelva) the man who would become one of the greatest exponents of Spanish literature. Juan Ramón Jiménez was a poet attached to the Generation of '27, along with other writers such as Federico García Lorca and Rafael Alberti. Among his works, Platero and I stands out, which revolves around the life of a donkey called Platero.

24 December 1734: a fire destroys Madrid's Royal Alcázar

The Royal Alcazar of Madrid was located where today stands the Royal Palace of Madrid, in the Plaza de Oriente. In order to locate its origins, we must go back to the 9th century, when an Islamic fortress was built. After the Spanish reconquest, it became the residence of the royal family until a fire destroyed it on Christmas Eve in 1734. It was so big that only rubble was left. Four years later, construction would begin on the current Royal Palace.

25 December 1492: Christopher Columbus

In December 1492, Christopher Columbus landed on the island now shared by Haiti and the Dominican Republic, naming it La Española. On 25 December he built the first European settlement on American soil. He built the so-called Fuerte Navidad, made from the remains of the ship Santa María, which had been damaged after hitting a coral reef. The following year, Columbus returned to Fuerte Navidad and found it destroyed.

25 December 1491: Ignatius of Loyola, founder of the Society of Jesus, is born

One of the most important Christmas historical events from a religious point of view has to do with the birth of Ignatius of Loyola. Originally from the town of Azpeitia in Gipuzkoa, he was a soldier and later gave himself up to church life. So much so that he founded the Society of Jesus. This order of Jesuits is, in fact, the most important Catholic network in the world.

6 January 1492: the Catholic Monarchs arrive in Granada after the surrender of Boabdil

The Day of the Wise Men in 1492 would mark a before and after in the history of Spain. Several weeks earlier, in November, Boabdil, the last Muslim emir of Granada, had met with the Catholic Monarchs to agree on the capitulation. However, it would not be until 6 January that Isabella and Ferdinand would triumphantly enter Granada after the Sultan's recession.

5 January 1813: the Court of the Holy Inquisition is abolished in Spain

The Court of the Holy Inquisition entered Spain at the hands of the Catholic Monarchs, who decided to found this institution in 1478 with the aim of maintaining the Catholic faith throughout the territory. The Holy Inquisition was linked to persecution, repression and bonfires. It is, in fact, one of the darkest historical events in Spanish history. After almost four centuries in force, it was abolished on 5 January 1813.

25 December 1884: an earthquake triggers panic in Andalusia

An earthquake took away the joy of Christmas, precisely on Christmas Day. It was 9 p.m. when the ground began to shake. The epicentre was located in the town of Arenas del Rey in Granada, although it was also felt in the provinces of Málaga, Jaén and Almería. In just 20 seconds it caused 745 deaths and around 1,500 injured. More than a hundred aftershocks in the following days followed this earthquake of magnitude between 6.2 and 6.5 on the Richter scale.

31 December 1909: the tradition of eating the 12 grapes begins

Did you know that the tradition of eating grapes on New Year's Eve is over a century old? It seems to be a tradition imported from our French neighbours. This custom of the French bourgeoisie welcomed the new year with grapes and a toast with champagne. Little by little, the Spanish adopted this tradition until, finally, it was fully implemented due to a surplus of grapes in the 1909 harvest. From then on, it is usual that the last 12 chimes of the clock are accompanied by 12 lucky grapes.

31 December 1936: Miguel de Unamuno died

The famous author of Niebla ("Mist") died on the last day of the year when the Civil War broke out in Spain. This fact could not be left out of the Christmas celebrations as far as literature is concerned, given that Miguel de Unamuno is one of the greatest exponents of the Generation of '98 and his death marked an important historical event in Spain. He was rector of the University of Salamanca and, in fact, is often remembered for his speech against the national side. "You will win, but you will not convince," he said.

25 December 1983: Joan Miró, surrealist painter, dies

Christmas Day in 1983 was marked by sad news: the death of Joan Miró. This Catalan painter and sculptor is considered one of the main figures of Surrealism, a movement that emerged in Europe after the First World War. His work is distinguished by its vivid colours; as well as by the geometric forms that, at times, convey a dreamlike universe.

1 January 2002: the euro enters into circulation

1 January 2002 was the date chosen for the introduction of the euro; the new currency adopted by the European Union. The new generations may not remember these historical events, but the single currency lived with the extinct peseta for a few months until it was finally withdrawn from the market. Today, it is the official currency of 19 countries.

The Order was founded in 1118 to protect the faithful and rescue Jerusalem from Turkish occupation. Although most of them met a tragic end, including a fire, the Spanish Templars were hardly punished because they had the protection of local monarchies. The refuge they had in the peninsula was the crown of Aragón, and also the north of Spain, where they were always in a privileged position.

Around these knights there is a great halo of esotericism, legends and enigmas. In Spain, the Knights Templar were of great importance. Their legacy is still alive in castles, churches, monuments and in numerous novels where their deeds are told thanks to the most popular Spanish Templars.

These are the most famous Spanish Templars in history

Ramón Berenguer III, the first Spanish Templar

In 1127 the Templars arrived in Aragón, and since then they have maintained a close relationship with Count Ramón Bereguer III, who was married to one of the daughters of El Cid Campeador. The latter collaborated with numerous donations and privileges for the Order and acceded to it in 1130.

The Count of Barcelona, who was close to death, decided to join the Templars for two main reasons. Firstly, to cleanse his sins and be accepted by God. The second reason was so that the Templars could settle in the Peninsula and expel the Muslims. Thus he became the first Spanish Templar.

In his will, he gave the castle of Grañena de Cevera to the Templars. This action made him a figure of great historical importance for his help to the Order, thus collaborating in its settlement in Spain.

Guillem de Montredon, Master of the Order at the Castle of Monzón

Guillem de Montredon was one of the most important Templars on the peninsula. He joined the Knights Templar in 1203. Years later, he was appointed commander of Gardeny, one of the Templar centres of the Crown of Aragón. He was then appointed commander of Masdeu in the court of King Peter II, accompanying him in his military campaigns.

When the king died, he was appointed Master of Aragón, Catalonia and Provence in 1213, thus taking on an essential role. The Infant James was held by Simon IV de Montfort, who secured his release after negotiations in Rome with Pope Innocent III, who released him and handed him over to the Order.

From then on, the Templar Guillem de Montredon was the protector and educator of James I and his first cousin Ramon Berenguer V in Monzón Castle. He always remained at the side of James, being his faithful advisor until his death in Barcelona.

Arnaldo de Torroja, an important Catalan Templar

Arnaldo de Torroja, known as Arnau de Torroja was a Catalan knight, from a noble family in Solsona. He joined the Order in 1180 and was the ninth Grand Master. He belonged to the court of Ramón Berenguer IV and took part in the conquest of Lleida and Tortosa by the Moors.

Because of this he joined the Knights Templar, chosen to succeed Eudes de Saint-Amand as Grand Master in the province of Aragón and Provence. He travelled to the Holy Land on three occasions for different military campaigns and negotiated a truce with Saladin, one of the great governors in the Islamic world.

In 1184, he was the Order's highest authority and one of the most important Spanish Templars at the time. He then travelled to Verona to meet Pope Lucius to gain support in the Latin states due to Saladin's growing military power. However, during the journey he fell ill and died, in Verona, in 1184.

Gilbert Hérail, one of the youngest Templars

The Templar Gilbert Hérail was born in Aragón, a descendant of a noble military family. He entered at a very young age and was appointed Grand Commander. Years later, in 1193, he was elected Grand Master of the Order, thus becoming the twelfth.

He was involved in a great dispute with Pope Innocent III. The Pope confirmed the privileges granted to the Temple, but Gilbert decided to maintain peace between Muslims and Christians. Because of this, tensions between the Templars and the Hospitallers increased; with the latter taking advantage of the situation to recover castles and some land.

Furthermore, during his mandate the Order participated in the Reconquest of the peninsula. As a result, King Alfonso II of Aragón, thanking the Templars for their services, donated the Alfambra fortress. In 1200 Gilberte died, just at the beginning of the Fourth Crusade.

Pedro de Montaigú, master of the Third Crusade

Pedro de Montaigú was born in Aragón and joined the Order in 1218; when he arrived in Acre during the Third Crusade. He was the fifteenth Grand Master of the Templars. He also belonged to the Crusade of Navas de Tolosa and was Master of Provence, Catalonia and Aragón.

Together with King John of Brienne, regent of Jerusalem, he conquered Damiette, thus joining the Order. He was a Templar until his death in 1232, having great importance due to his ability to fight.

Berenguer de Cardona, second-to-last Master of Aragón

The Templar Berenguer de Cardona was the second to last Master of the Crown of Aragón. He managed all the Order's possessions in this part of the peninsula until Pope Clement V abolished it due to pressure from the French King Philip IV. He was also one of the most outstanding Spanish Templars in the history of the Iberian Peninsula.

He took part in the conquests against the Muslims in Murcia and supervised the defence of the castles of Caravaca and Cehegín. In 1294, he was appointed warden of the Christians in Tunis, but he renounced all rights on behalf of the Templars. In exchange, he asked for the rights in Peñíscola, Ares and Caves of Vinromá. He travelled several times to Cyprus, as it was a strategic point for the Order to conquer Jerusalem. He died here in 1307.

That year, the King of France accused the Templars of heresy, taking them to the stake and killing them. In Spain, however, the end of the Order was very different. Although, despite not believing the accusations, they accepted the orders out of obedience to Rome. They confiscated Templar goods, but did not burn them at the stake. They continued to act with them to win the fight against the Muslims in the peninsula; but without using the name of the Knights Templar.

Las Fallas or how Valencia attracts eyes from all over the world

Every March, Valencia smells like tradition, fireworks and art. Declared a festival of International Tourist Interest and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2016, this magical festival fills the streets. The most popular version of its origin is that, on March 19, the eve of their patron Saint Joseph, the carpenters of the city made bonfires in front of their workshops to burn old junk and leftover wood, and that way cleaned the workshop and celebrated the end of winter because days were starting to be longer.

This and other events such as the election of the most beautiful falla and the 'fallera mayor' (the queen of the festival), or the first 'fallera' week's celebration, led to what we know today as Las Fallas. During this festival, the fallas -impressive monuments made of paper and wooden- stand around several huge figures, which can sometimes reach an impressive height of twenty meters. The ‘mascletà’, the fireworks displays and the popular participation have made this festival to enjoy a well-deserved fame all over the world. Its starting point is known as La Plantà, when the 'falleros' leave their monuments standing beautifully all over Valencia for the judge to decide which one will be the winner. The castles of fire star the rest of the week, giving way to the offering of flowers to the Virgin. Finally, La Cremà arrives, for most the most expected moment of the Fallas, when the sky turns red and yellow from the fire consuming the fallas.

Tomatina, when the people go to war with tomatoes as a weapon in Buñol

La Tomatina takes place in the province of Valencia, specifically in Buñol. This festival is literally a war of tomatoes where participants throw tomatoes at each other. It usually lasts one hour and is a tradition that has been carried out since 1944 and is celebrated on the last Wednesday of August, the week in which the rest of the festivities of this village are celebrated. It is said that it started when a riot arose and the government advisor was attacked with tomatoes. Apparently the people enjoyed this act of rebellion so much that the following year it was performed again and so on to the present day.

There are some rules, however, in order that participants do not harm other people. For example, they have to use smashed tomatoes and not regular ones. Also, the shot is heard, everyone must stop throwing tomatoes. Of course, everyone must follow the rules from the security staff. All this to keep security and to celebrate this festival without accidents. But with fun as the protagonist.

Concurs de Castells, which one will be the highest of Tarragona?

The Concurs de Castells is celebrated in Tarragona every two years. It is a performance of the best human towers, or 'castells' of the country that takes place at the Tarraco Arena Plaça de Tarragona. One of the main attractions of the contest is that it is the only day of the whole season in which all the human towers or 'castells' receive a score according to their difficulty. This makes the top teams compete to achieve first place in the final classification.

Thousands of people participate as public the most important castle performance, which also enjoys a wide media coverage by the media. In short, the Concurs de Castells is a first class show and a magnificent opportunity to enjoy the 'casteller', a Catalan cultural exhibition declared cultural and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. One thing is for sure, watching this is a whole spectacle for the senses, and the perfect place to feel adrenaline.

The wine battle of La Rioja, where instead of drinking it, people bathes in it

Yes, you read it right. In this festival, the people of Haro in La Rioja, throw wine at each other. Its origins date back to the 15th century, when the people from this beautiful town had the tradition of making a small pilgrimage to a cave where the remains of an important anchorite were found. Somewhere in between the process, the first wine baptisms began to take place. This way, the religious cult and the pagan festivity would come together.

Wine was used as ammunition, becoming the essence of the festival. People ate and drank together, sang and laughed all day. And as wine was never lacking in La Rioja, the tradition has arrived to the present day. One of the rules is that you cannot leave anyone without that purple color, so get dressed in white, and… let the battle begin!

El Cascamorras, a representation of a millennial struggle in Granada

With the firing of a firework and the beating of a drum begins this traditional and ancient festival of El Cascamorras, which in its origin dates back to the 15th century. This legendary tradition has it that after the Reconquest, a worker from Guadix (Granada) discovered in Baza the carving of the Virgin Mary and tried to take it to Guadix, but the local authorities did not allow it. Thus the dispute between Baza and Guadix for the image of this Virgin began, and the authorities of the time are those who finally settled that the image stays in Baza but Guadix can celebrate the festival. In Baza it is celebrated on September 6 and in the city of Guadix on September 9.

This ritual of ‘search and pursuit’ consists of El Cascamorras, escorted by a drummer and a retinue arrives from Guadix to Baza to take the image of the Virgin, the crowd awaits him with the intention of staining him, if he manages to get there without being stained he will have achieved his goal, to return the image to Guadix. El Cascamorras is a very dynamic festival, full of color, with great participation of the youth. And probably in the list of the scariest and weirdest festivals.

Tamborrada of San Sebastián, to the rhythm of drums

The Tamborrada is the most important festival in San Sebastián, and one of the funniest. The whole city gathers regardless of the cold or rain, usually seen in the north. More than 100 different bands form this magical festival and fill the city with the sound of drums. There is always a wide participation.

Its origins go back to the time of the War of Independence, when Napoleon's troops invaded this city, and completely destroyed it in a fire. During the French occupation, women typically went to fetch water from one of the two fountains in the city. At the same time it was usual to see Napoleonic troops marching through the city beating their drums. Soon the women began to play their jars on their way to the fountain, as a mockery. Eventually, this defiant gesture kept growing and so did its meaning for the people of San Sebastián. The culinary societies are partly responsible for the success of this event. That is why many of the people who participate in the Tamborrada are dressed as cooks.

Flour Fight Festival, Ibi’s white battle

‘Els Enfarinats’, in Valencian, is the name the people from Ibi, a small village of Alicante, give to this funny festival. The morning of 28 December, Spain’s Day of the Innocents, starts the flour war. But also the egg’s one. Yes, people throw eggs at each other apart from flour, an authentic food war. Its origins are not fully clear. With more than 200 years of history, this festival commemorates the biblical story of King Herod and the slaughter of the innocents.

On December 27th, well into the afternoon, the Amantats read different banners announcing the coming to power of the Enfarinats the next day. Already on the 28th in the morning at about 9 o'clock, the party begins. They face each other in order to win the power of Ibi. The Enfarinats that have taken the government of the village, and on the other hand the Opposition that does not agree. Both sides start throwing flour and eggs at each other in what becomes a crazy battle.

Resurrections and other miracles, this is what the first Santa Claus was like

The first Santa Claus was actually named St. Nicholas of Bari. He was a bishop who lived during the 3rd and 4th centuries in Mira, a Roman city in modern-day Turkey. His remains rest in Bari, Italy, and are venerated by many countries and faithful. Many miracles are attributed to St. Nicholas, among them the resurrection of three young men who had just been murdered. He is, for this and other facts, patron saint of children.

Considered a rebellious defender of Christianity at a time when it was a crime to be one, St. Nicholas of Bari even spent time in prison. He traveled preaching the word of God and apparently had a special predilection for children, whom he tried to protect and help. During part of the Middle Ages, his figure became popular and he began to be spoken of as a man willing to give gifts to young people who behaved well. Sure it is already ringing a bell.

With the arrival of the Protestant trend, however, some problems were found with his figure. That role of protector and entertainer had to be transferred to the Child Jesus, so the date of his celebration was changed: from December 6, the day St. Nicholas died, to the 25th of the same month. The Child Jesus, in any case, would be accompanied by someone to help him with this task, just a secondary. But in places like the Netherlands they refused to give up this figure and its celebration. They were so determined to preserve it that they exported it to America, where Washington Irving, among other writers, made it more entertaining and updated it. From the Middle Ages it passed to the 19th century and from America, renovated, to the world. This is the history of Santa Claus, although very brief.

His relationship with Alicante and the belief of the Dutch

Okay, but what about Alicante? Tradition has it that among the places that St. Nicholas visited to preach the word of God is the beautiful Alicante. So much so that, in fact, St. Nicholas is the patron saint of Alicante. It is celebrated every year, by the way, on December 6, although in the Spanish geography it has been overshadowed by the Constitution Day.

It seems that St. Nicholas did have a relationship with Alicante and this was taken note of in the Netherlands, where they began to believe that Santa Claus' gifts did not pass through the maritime customs of the North Pole but through Spanish customs. Dutch legend has it that every night of December 5, the eve of St. Nicholas Day, this good man left the port of Alicante with a ship full of tangerines and oranges from the Alicante orchard, as well as cookies and toys for children. Today it is one of the most popular festivals in the Netherlands. It is known as Sinterklaas, the feast of St. Nicholas. Every year he arrives at a port in the country and then the feast begins.

As you can see, it is a back-and-forth of dates, names and places in a story that can be summarized as follows. Santa Claus, as this figure is known in Spain, is a modern figure that was born from the ancient Saint Nicholas, a bishop of the fourth century who passed through Alicante, from where he left loaded with gifts to the Netherlands. That's what the Dutch believed, at least.

Cities, like people, also dress up for Christmas and, in addition to boasting each year of original and innovative decorations and lights, also maintain a tradition: the Nativity Scene. There are communities that have kept their Nativity Scene design intact for years and others that, every December, come up with a new style that becomes the center of attention. In any case, there are certain ones that, because of their great history and antiquity or for being a unique and groundbreaking proposal, are worth discovering.

The Beach Nativity Scene of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria

The Canary Islands are a true paradise since, even in the winter months, it usually has warm temperatures and dream beaches. For this very reason, it is logical that Las Palmas de Gran Canaria chooses every year a beach design carved in the sand that attracts the attention of the whole world for its Nativity Scene. The Nativity Scene of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria consists of more than 2,000 tons of sand that forms the typical figures up to four meters high. It is located on the beach of Las Canteras and during the Christmas weeks it occupies a great area that attracts thousands of curious and tourists.

Barcelona Nativity Scene

Barcelona is one of the most cosmopolitan and cultural cities in Spain. For this reason, every year the city's Nativity Scene causes a great expectation, for wanting to know the type of design that will have been chosen for the occasion. One of those that caused more surprise among the inhabitants of the city was that of the year 2019. The city council decided to place in full Sant Jaume square a deconstructed proposal of the Nativity Scene from boxes that contained and combined motifs of the Nativity Scene as the Virgin Mary, along with everyday goals and pictures, which caused fascination and annoyance in equal parts. It managed, in any case, to become one of the most famous.

Neapolitan Nativity Scene of Valladolid

They treat it as a real treasure and it has become one of the most famous ones in Spain. The Neapolitan Nativity Scene of Valladolid boasts every year of being one of the most spectacular in Europe. It has been kept in the National Museum of Sculpture for many years. The imposing Nativity Scene has 620 figures dating from the 18th century that are distributed throughout the entire showcase recreating the birth of Jesus. The quality of the details and the history behind them make them miniature works of art. This kind has managed to break with the bucolic landscape of the time and reflect the society of the time.

Nativity Scene at the Casa Cisneros in Madrid.

Madrid has several ones of which it can boast, but undoubtedly one of those that has attracted the most attention throughout its history is the one that every year is placed in the Casa Cisneros, in the center of the capital. This Nativity scene follows the traditional theme and aesthetics and always takes care of the smallest detail, placing real moss and faithfully recreating the scene. Its large dimensions have meant that it has sometimes had to be displayed outdoors, covered with a large transparent tent to protect it from the weather. During the Christmas days, it is one of the cribs that receives more visits, making the curious stay for a good time contemplating all the winks and details that hide the small figures.

Playmobil Nativity Scene of Seville

Leaving tradition and history aside, we find one of the most original and funniest Nativity Scenes in Spain, that of the Madariaga Foundation in Seville, made entirely with Playmobil pieces and figures. This toy brand has come to specialize in marketing figures of the Nativity Scene, but certainly in Seville they take it to another level. With more than 40,000 pieces, the Nativity Scene has an extension of 400 square meters. It recreates different biblical scenes ranging from the Egyptians to the birth of Jesus. Admission is not free and must be booked online a few days in advance. However, it is a perfect plan to do with children at Christmas and has earned the position of one of the most famous in the country.

The great Nativity Scene of Xàtiva in Valencia

In Valencia, the tradition of the Fallas is something that is lived intensely and fruit of this passion arose years ago the largest Nativity Scene in Spain, in Xàtiva, with up to 1,600 square meters. The vast extension that occupies this Bethlehem is not full of small figures, but precisely have been falleros artists who have been responsible for making life-size figures. The result is an enormous large-scale one where people can walk around and see the scene first hand. The orchards and vegetation are real, as well as the ponds and fountains, which makes it a unique experience within the many that Spain has.

El Escorial Monumental Nativity Scene

For 25 years now, the town of El Escorial, just 50 kilometers from Madrid, has been preparing all its streets for its great Monumental Nativity Scene. It is a large-scale one that has remained faithful to tradition and has been put up, year after year, for the enjoyment of visitors, who have free access to enjoy it. In total, it consists of 450 figures of a large size and recreates various scenes within the Christmas festivity until the famous birth in the Manger. In addition, as a novelty in recent years, have been restoring and creating new figures made from recycled materials.

What emerges from this dispute is no more relevant than her name, but it is equally important. So unknown is this woman that she cannot even be named with the certainty that she is doing it correctly. But there is certainty, unanimity, on one point: she was extraordinary at her job. This is what has made her story eternal.

True to her ideas in the middle ages

Ende, or En, spent part of her life in the monastery of Tábara, in present-day Zamora, once called the Kingdom of León. The mystery that tarnishes her figure, which begins with her name and is lost over the centuries, prevents her from playing a definitive role in the life of this place. A small, secluded place that was nevertheless full of the same life that Ende captured in her work. It was a double, mixed monastery, like so many others from the Visigothic and Mozarabic periods on the peninsula. A monastic tradition that was already dying when our illuminating protagonist lived.

Surrounded by six hundred companions, men and women who came and went, Ende could have devoted her life to prayer and the work of a religious woman. She was indeed a religious woman, involved in the activity of this centre, which became one of the most important in the Christian Iberian Peninsula. However, it does not seem that she devoted her life to the faith. At least not completely. Although it is not difficult to imagine her life in a cloister, under the immense sky of broad Castile, it is not precisely the silence of this anonymous face that has stood the test of time.

The studies of John Williams, one of the great eminences when it comes to the Middle Ages, point to a possibility that fits better with the unmistakable trace of her activity, and that diverts the path of that silent cloister. Ende may in fact have belonged to that group of noblewomen from León who during those years rejected both monastic life and married life. They managed their own fortunes and decided, in a certain sense, on a path of their own.

Cultural life in monasterios

Ende's experience in the monastery of Tábara brought her closer to the religion she professed, but what can be inferred from the legacy she left behind is that it brought her closer, above all, to the great cultural movement of the time. The fact is that the Tábara workshops produced some of the most highly valued codices of the Spanish Middle Ages. The whole Tera-Esla basin, in fact, was a cultural beacon. Ende, it seems from what is known about her, felt very much at home here. Among the characteristic copyists of the time, embracing that will to preserve sacred texts and eternal images, working for her faith and also for herself. If only a little.

That cultural movement feels different from the one that exists today, but the essence is similar. Literature and art had a place in the monasteries, for everyone. With all this, it can be assumed that Ende had intellectual concerns. She also had a well-established education and a cultured character which she took advantage of to fulfil herself professionally, encouraged by those around her. An image associated with a monk, but not so much with a noblewoman or a nun.

Giving light to the Dark Ages, that was Ende's mission

Without such outside support, Ende could not have become the first female illustrator, or at least the first female illustrator we know of in European history. It is a little more complex than this reduction, but what is understood today by the work of illustration can be extrapolated to this tenth century. This explains the activity that this woman carried out, whether she was a religious or a noblewoman. Her origins are not known, nor is the date of her death. It is not possible to put a face to this artist, nor is there even agreement on her name, but the value of her work has been transcended.

Perhaps we can compare Ende as the Banksy of the Middle Ages, but the truth is that her profile had to be radically opposite. One cannot complete this picture unless one's imagination leads one to think of Ende as a well-known woman among her fellow monks in that monastery. Respected and admired and important. The trust placed in her person must have been total. Otherwise, she would not have been chosen to illuminate the well-known Beatus of Gerona, preserved today in the Cathedral of Santa Maria de Gerona. One of the "most richly decorated" codices, according to the aforementioned John Williams, preserved from this period in Spain.

Ende was the principal illuminator of this Beatus, the work of Abbot Dominicus, a copy of the Commentary on the Book of Revelation of St John by Beatus of Liébana in the 8th century. For those unfamiliar with the terms, the job of the illuminators, de Ende, was to illustrate the writings contained in the codices. Those immense heavy volumes made so popular by fiction such as The Name of the Rose take on the same weight here. However, they are filled with the colours that are normally absent in the productions that obscure the Middle Ages.

In the case of the Beatus of Gerona, we highlight the colours that are spread over 284 plates with more than 100 illustrations. The forms are the fruit of Ende's imagination, individualised characters, geometric figures, reds, greens, blues and a great deal of talent that fortunately managed to speak for the artist. Because Ende deserves this adjective as she was an artist, a woman with her own ideas, as that is what she demonstrates with her work. A woman who has the courage to carry them out. In an environment conducive to her raising her eyes to the immense sky that guarded the tranquillity of the monastery of Tábara and breathing in art, literature, her faith, the ways she found to express herself and also silence. All at the same time.

Painter, pioneer and servant of God

On her signature, on her name. In this Beatus of Gerona, the following can be read: "Ende pintrix et d(e)i aiutrix". Ende, painter and servant of God. Or, perhaps, "En depintrix et d(e)i aiutrix". En painter said in a less usual way and servant of God. In any case, the common elements are clear. Ende or En, at the feet of God, but above all, painter. The first documented woman in the history of Europe, such a situation deserves to be remembered.

Nowadays, when Covid-19 has changed many traditions, it is appropriate to look to the past. For example, to the origins of these places that many have exchanged for the best online casinos in Spain, the security of which supports this analysis. Therefore, all that remains is to find out which were the oldest casinos in Spain and how these institutions became popular.

Cultural casinos, the outcome of an era

The term casino comes from Italian. It was in Italy that the phenomenon originated, in small dwellings on the outskirts of cities, back in the 17th century. However, it was in the 19th century that the real cultural casinos appeared. The model on which they were based came from England, and also from France, where the concept of the nineteenth-century "gentleman" was becoming consolidated.

Wealthy men's clubs were places where men began to gather to share their cultural concerns. There had already been places very similar to these before. The first ones, the conversation houses. In the Modern Age, they welcomed gamblers under the pretext of, as their name suggests, providing the setting for talks. The tertulias were the enlightened evolution of the concept. More exclusive settings in which invitations were invited.

A sort of combination of these two visions gave rise to the oldest casinos in Spain. Masculine and exclusive, they rose up since the victory in the War of Independence as authentic avatars of the change of era. Initially, entry was by invitation only, so it was complicated. This did not prevent them from becoming popular, especially after the death of the tyrannical Ferdinand VII.

A wide variety of activities took place there. Debates were continuous. These were fed by the latest discoveries and cultural works due to the literary gatherings or joint readings of the press. Of course, there was also room for games. Billiards or cards were the stars, although a sporting style usually predominated.

The first Spanish casinos

As in everything, there were pioneers. These oldest casinos in Spain paved the way for the rest. The oldest example is the Real Casino Antiguo of Castellón. The Baron of Benicassim was in charge of promoting it back in 1814. He did it together with other upper class colleagues. As in many other cases, it changed its location and even its name over time. The final building was erected in 1922. In the place called Puerta del Sol in Castellón de la Plana, the structure has several rooms and was designed by Francesc Maristany Casajuana, being considered his first work. In 2014 it acquired a real character.

One of the oldest is also the Casino of Madrid on Calle Alcalá, of course in the capital. Although the institution was founded two decades after the one in Castellón, its current headquarters, one of the most recognisable buildings in Madrid, was built before it. It dates from 1910. Much had happened since 1836. Little more than 10 initial members numbered more than 1,000 at the beginning of the 20th century. Gambling and reading the press were some of its most defining characteristics.

Two others that can be considered the oldest casinos in Spain are those of Murcia and Soria. The Murcia casino, Real Casino de Murcia, was created in 1847. What is most impressive about it is its building. It combines styles from all periods and geographies. It was developed and extended between 1953 and 1902. The Casino Numancia dates from 1848 and acquired its final form when it merged with an institution with which it shared its headquarters, the Círculo de Amistad of 1865. It was almost a century later, in 1961, when these two Soria classics merged.

The leap to contemporary casinos took some time. Primo de Rivera and the Franco dictatorship left the practice of gambling tied down. It was in the last third of the last century that they proliferated. A journey from gentlemen's clubs to pure gambling spaces.

Among Spain's Intangible Cultural Heritage we find music, food and festivities, many festivities: Valencia Fallas festivity, Fiesta de los Patios de Córdoba and others less known of which we will talk about next.

Mediterranean diet

In Spain people eat so well that everyone knows it. The United Nations decided to include our diet among Spain's intangible cultural heritage. The reason for this goes beyond the quality of the food, as the UNESCO points out that: "The Mediterranean diet does not only include food, as it is a cultural element that encourages social interaction". In 2003 the candidature was presented jointly by Spain, Italy, Greece and Morocco. "We Mediterraneans do not sit at the table to eat, but to eat together and enjoy the company of friends and family. An ancient heritage that we must continue to pass on to future generations. It is a way of life" they declared in the candidacy.

Silbo Gomero

Silbo gomero is the whistled language of the island of La Gomera (Canary Islands) to communicate through the ravines. It is the only whistled language in the world fully developed and spoken by a large community, approximately 22,000 people. It has been taught in schools since 1999 to maintain the language. Silbo gomero replaces the vowels and consonants of Spanish with whistles: two differentiated whistles replace the five vowels; and another four replace the consonants. Then there are different intensities and duration of the whistle. When you master it you can communicate any message. Interesting intangible cultural heritage, isn't it?

Irrigators’ tribunals of the Spanish Mediterranean coast

Since 2009, Spain's Intangible Cultural Heritage includes the irrigators' tribunals of the Spanish Mediterranean coast: the Council of Wise Men of the plain of Murcia and the Water Tribunal of the plain of Valencia. This is a legal institution for water management. Its origins date back to the time of Al-Andalus (9th-13th centuries). This Tribunal is made up of seven members from different geographical areas who are democratically elected. They also enjoy great authority and respect in the area.

Flamenco

Whether you like it or not, flamenco is probably the most characteristic expression of Spanish culture. And since 2010 it has become a universal art. Flamenco was declared Intangible Cultural Heritage on 16 November, a date that has been established as International Flamenco Day. This day is celebrated around the world with different flamenco shows, in Spain it is celebrated in Jerez de la Frontera.  

Castells

In 2015 castells became part of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Spain and of Humanity. Castells are human towers built during the different festivities in towns and villages of Catalonia. There is a lot of tradition regarding them and sometimes different generations are part of the same group. Standing successively on each other's shoulders, "castellers" form human towers of six to ten floors. The wide band that protects their backs also serves as a support point for those who climb to the upper floors of the tower.

The mystery play of Elche

Since the middle of the 15th century, the Mystery of Elche has been represented in the Basilica of Santa Maria and in the streets of the city of Elche, in Valencia. This is a sacred musical drama about the death, assumption and crowning of the Virgin Mary. This completely sung theatrical performance is held on 14 and 15 August. It consists of various acts and processions. It is a living testimony of medieval religious theatre and about 300 volunteers take part in it that deserve to be among the intangible cultural heritage list.

A long journey

Right foot on the floor to find the slippers and start the search for gifts. It depends on the house and the year, but the search can become a real trial gymkhana if the Three Kings have been creative in leaving the gifts. But in most households they place each present next to the shoe of the family member under the Christmas tree. 

The journey from the East is a long one. The stops at the homes are constant, and although the Kings are magicians, they also get tired. To recover their strength, they eat and drink what is offered to them at home. There are all kinds of snacks: sweets, milk, juice, biscuits and a long etcetera. The luckiest families even receive a note written by Melchior, Gaspar and Balthazar in gratitude. 

Origin of the Three Kings

The first reference to the Magi is religious and is found in the Bible. The Gospel of Matthew states that the Magi, guided by a star, travelled around the planet until the star stopped at the portal of Bethlehem, the birthplace of Jesus. As a gift they brought gold, frankincense and myrrh to the newborn. From this event arises this tradition that has changed over the years; but it is a festival that is celebrated with great importance in Spain. 

The Three Kings travel from the East guided by a star, the most imposing in the whole sky, that of Bethlehem. Despite being a symbol of this day, studies conclude that it is not a singular star, but a series of astronomical events. A symbol that was later used as a Christmas decoration and crowns every tree that decorates the home on this date.

By magic they go around every corner handing out gifts to everyone who has written and sent the letter to them. It is true that there is a halo of magic that surrounds these Kings called Magi; but the reality is that they receive their name for a matter of etymology. 

The term 'magi' attributed to Melchior, Gaspar and Balthazar is derived from the Persian language. In this language, 'maguusha' means 'priest'. The word travels through different languages such as Greek and Latin until a semantic change occurs in the word and the term 'mago' in Spanish is used to refer to them today.

Gifts and a sweet ending

The gifts are very varied. From toys with the name of the little ones in the house, to ladders for the older ones. That is if during the year the behaviour has been the right one; because there are those who on this January morning receive coal. This gift has been modified over the decades. In the past, young and old received the mineral; but now it is considered a gift because it is a sweet and they enjoy eating it.

On this day traditions depend on each house. There are families who eagerly open all the gifts when they wake up and go to the tree and there are others who first eat breakfast and then discover the surprises. Although, if the little ones are up, the task of waiting becomes quite complicated. 

The breakfast par excellence on this January morning is the Roscón de Reyes. It is a typical sweet of this Christmas date, perfect to continue with the magic and surprises of the day. The tradition of this sweet lies in hiding a figure and a bean inside the donut. The person who finds the figure among its piece, is crowned as the king that day. On the contrary, if the bean is found, the person has to pay for the roscón as a punishment.

The recipe for making the roscón is very simple. It only changes depending on the taste of each one, the filling inside. There are roscones that are not filled, but those that are contain cream, chocolate, truffle cream or pastry cream, among many others. 

After satisfying the appetite and filling the stomach comes the saddest part of the Christmas holidays: picking up the Christmas decorations. It is synonymous with the end of the holidays and we have to wait until next year for the spirit of Christmas to embrace every corner. A time of intense emotions, both good and bad, in moments full of excitement. The colour of the tinsel, the lights that have faded on the tree and the dessert that accompanies the dinner do not matter. It comes back to reality until the calendar marks December again.

The story of the Three Kings' parade

The streets are crowded with people who, with the biggest smile and twinkle in their eyes, are waiting to see the Majesties of the East: Melchior, Gaspar and Balthazar. There are young and old, nobody wants to miss the show. Everything is lit up with Christmas lights and the joy of the audience almost prevents them from hearing the Christmas carols playing on the loudspeakers.

They are pulled by tractors, cars or trucks. The floats are the other protagonists of the night of January 5th in every area of the map. With a route that passes through some of the streets of the municipalities so that everyone can greet the Three Kings, enjoy dancing and collecting sweets. This is another of the traditions and main characteristics of the night of the Three Kings, the candy.

Each float has confetti and sweets with which to satisfy the public. Once the confetti have been removed from the hair, everyone focuses on the big finale, throwing out candy. Collecting them is considered by many to be a risky sport. The most enthusiastic hunt them with an umbrella upside down as a container. On the other hand, there are those who run away overwhelmed by the avalanche.

The parade of floats takes place until they reach their destination: the representation of the Nativity Scene of Bethlehem. There the Three Kings get off their carriage, which often recreates a camel, and address the audience giving a speech in keeping with the magic of the atmosphere and the Christmas night.

The fight for the throne

Some prefer to watch it on TV without being cold and avoiding crowds. Others leave their homes in time to find the perfect place to watch their local ones. What is certain is that, in one way or another, it is a festivity celebrated and followed by all. But since when has it been a tradition to welcome the Three Kings on the parade?

There is a certain discrepancy in the origins of the parade of floats prior to Three Kings Day. Many are the territories that give themselves the title of being the first to celebrate the night of the Three Kings. Despite this, officially, the Spanish government held the first parade during the Christmas holidays in 1885.

However, Alcoy states that its inhabitants already enjoyed this celebration in 1866. This town of Alicante hosted a parade featuring the Three Kings riding camels and handing out gifts to the locals. Christmas and festive atmosphere had fireworks as a final touch to the evening.

At the other end is Madrid. The capital did not have a festive night to wait for The Majesties of the East until 1929. It was organised by the Madrid newspaper, "El Heraldo de Madrid" in collaboration with the city council. It was a resounding success among the entire population and was forced to be suspended until 1953, when the period of the Civil War and the post-war period in Spain came to an end.

In any case, the eve of Three Kings Day is an event that has been awaited and consolidated in the folklore and customs of the country. So much so, that the Three Kings' Day Parade is considered a Festival of National Tourist Interest.

You have to behave nicely

The other important part of this magical night is the gifts. No matter how old you are, nervousness is quite common among children and adults. It is a night when you cannot fall asleep. For many, it is even a day to reflect on the attitude they have had all year. You know, whoever has misbehaved will not receive gifts the next morning.

On a sleepless night, the list drawn up for the Three Kings with all the gifts they dream of is mentally reviewed. A computer, some boots, new headphones for the mobile phone, what will be under the wrapping paper this year? Although on some occasions the letters are mixed up and in the end the Three Kings give gifts that have little to do with what is asked for in the letter. No one has ever asked for socks, but more than one has ever found them in the pile of gifts that bear their name.

And part of the charm of this Christmas celebration lies in this atmosphere of intrigue. What the Majesties finally place under the tree is a real mystery that is solved the next day. Some of them first check if the Kings have eaten and drunk the treats provided for them to regain their strength. Others do not even wait to eat the roscón to open them.

How exciting! The Three Kings have already wrapped all the packages and are on their way on the camels following the star. It is time to prepare the Christmas sweets and the glass of milk at the foot of the tree. For the camels, a little water to hydrate them well so they can continue on their way. And remember, tonight you have to go to bed early, if you want to enjoy tomorrow's presents.

Fiesta de aguinaldos

The Fiesta de aguinaldos has been present throughout Spain since the Middle Ages. It was one of the most deeply rooted traditions of the Christmas celebration. Originally, the aguinaldo consisted of a collection of food, such as nuts or chestnuts to be auctioned, which began on the 16th of December. The money obtained was given to the church for services held at Christmas, such as Christmas ceremonies.

It was also possible to donate money. This aguinaldo was collected house by house. The custom was to ask for a tip in some homes in exchange for some action carried out at Christmas. In particular, it was done by the children; who went to the homes of their neighbours or relatives to sing Christmas carols and, in return, received some coins or sweets.

Over the years it evolved and this was like the "pocket money" given to the little ones as a Christmas present. It is a tradition that has been lost in all areas of Spain; it is not common to find homes that still celebrate it. Nowadays, gifts are usually given on Santa Claus Day or the Three Kings.

Moreover, the aguinaldo was also linked to a company Christmas tradition. It was like a Christmas present from businesses to their workers; in the form of both a tip and extra pay. It was a voluntary action, although in many places in Spain it was compulsory by agreement; a form of gift for the effort made throughout the year.

In fact, in 1944 a government order came out requiring companies to pay a minimum of one week's salary in cash for the Christmas bonus. This tradition has not existed since the Workers' Statute established that the annual salary would be divided into 14 monthly payments; with two extraordinary payments at Christmas and in the summer. Although the aguinaldo can still be paid to employees, no business continues this tradition.

Simple Christmas Eve dinner without a feast

If there is one thing that has characterized Christmas in recent years, it is the big Christmas lunches and dinners full of appetizers and typical Christmas dishes. We eat, and a lot. On Christmas Eve, the menu is full of food: seafood, pâté, meat and all kinds of starters. However, years ago the food and the celebration were very different from how we know them today.

The menu was simpler and different according to the social class of each family. Most Spanish citizens ate vegetables, eggs or fish. Moreover, one had to eat little and early to attend the Midnight Mass on an empty stomach. Religious law had a strong influence on Christmas cuisine. After Midnight Mass it was usual to eat homemade Christmas sweets. The grandmothers of each home were in charge of gathering the women of the family days before to prepare the Christmas desserts for that night.

On the 25th the food was different, no vegetables or fish: for centuries the star dish of the day after the Christmas Eve fast was meat. Stuffed turkey or capon for the upper classes, while for the lower or middle classes it was time for slaughter, whether chickens, roosters, ducks, chickens or lambs.

Christmas decoration: the Nativity Scene

Today's Christmas decoration has little, if anything, to do with that of years ago. Today, the Christmas tree is present in almost every home and a large Nativity scene; but what does this have in common with the customs of a few years ago? Houses were decorated with the crib, which was the only Christmas symbol that represented the birth of Jesus. No Christmas tree, no figures of Father Christmas or the Three Kings. The crib is the origin of the Nativity that is placed in many homes, establishments and town halls today.

It began to be used in the 7th century, when Pope Theodore I deposited the remains of the original crib in Rome; thus beginning the tradition of decorating homes at Christmas with the nativity scene as a symbol of life and natural rebirth.

Attend the Midnight Mass (Misa del Gallo)

For years, the Midnight Mass was one of the essential elements of Christmas in Catholic traditions. Next to the nativity scene it was something that no Spanish home could do without, and that was to attend this mass. This is celebrated on Christmas Eve, between the 24th and 25th of December. It is usually celebrated in the early morning, after the Christmas Eve dinner. This tradition owes its origin to Pope Sixtus III, when in the 5th century A.D., he introduced in Rome the custom of celebrating the birth of Jesus with a prayer at midnight.

The name of this mass is somewhat curious. For the ancient Romans, the beginning of the day was "when the rooster crowed", and this expression was used by the Pope to announce the Midnight Mass every year. In the Vatican, it is still celebrated every year and even in the local churches and parishes this tradition is maintained; but it is increasingly disused among the inhabitants.

Years ago, this Christmas tradition was a must for all Catholics in the country and most households attended the early morning mass. Now in Spain the tradition has been forgotten and is only maintained by the elderly or those with a great Catholic tradition.

The Galician Apalpador

Re-emerging in the mid-2000s, the Apalpador has become one of the Christmas traditions in Galicia. It probably emerged in the mountainous areas of the east of the community, in the Lugo Ancares, and it is a coalman. Ragged, wearing a beret, smoking a pipe and sometimes with a donkey called Lor, he comes down from the mountains on Christmas Eve and New Year's Eve to leave the children present after touching their bellies.

Originally, the gifts were chestnuts and coal. The food was given to children who could not have something to eat, which was not unusual in rural areas, especially in Lugo and Ourense. Meanwhile, the fuel was for those who had a full tummy but nothing to warm up with. With time, as it could not be otherwise, the Apalpador became an alternative to the American Father Christmas. In this way, instead of fruits and minerals, all kinds of gifts were given.

There are several versions of the origin of this peculiar Spanish Christmas character. For example, some hypotheses suggest that its similarity to the Basque-Navarre Olentzero is not a coincidence. Thus, it would be an adaptation of a regionalist or nationalist nature. Other theories suggest that it emerged as an adaptation of a pre-Roman myth. The element of touching children's tummies is believed to be based on a Lusitanian divinatory custom. Backing up this version of the Apalpador is the fact that in Écija, Seville, there is a very similar character, the Tientapanzas. It is thought that it was the Galician repopulators who brought the tradition to the south.

From the Basque-Navarre mountains: Olentzero

Originally from the area of Lesaka in Navarre, the Olentzero is one of the most unique and ancient Christmas traditions and characters in the country. He is also known as Olentzaro, Orantzaro or Onontzaro. In his case, his existence is well traced thanks to different documents, such as the Navarrese Fueros. Although during the Franco regime it struggled to subsist due to the prohibitions of the dictatorship, it revived strongly after that time. Today it does not fail to deliver gifts every 25th December from the Basque Country and Navarre.

It is believed that the character appeared with the pre-Roman festivities associated with the winter solstice. Then came the Roman Saturnalia. Christianity adapted both these and the pre-Roman customs, with which the Olentzero himself became attached to the birth of Jesus Christ. Over time, his unkempt, dirty, charcoal-bound appearance was consolidated. His mountain character was also vital, with legends including Basque fairies and goblins. Thus, his work consisted of going down from his house, where he lived alone, to provide fuel for the towns in the isolated Basque/Navarrese mountains. As with the Apalpador, he now gives out gifts to children from Guipúzcoa to Pamplona.

Closely associated with the culture of Navarre, the Olentzero is one of the most curious Christmas traditions in Spain. However, its current friendly nature is the result of a certain whitewashing. For example, although it used to be presented to you smoking a pipe, this detail is now often omitted. In some areas he did not give out presents, but came down the chimney with a sickle and mowed the throats of those who were not asleep. A horrific turn of events in the 17th century that has now completely disappeared.

Good fairies: the Cantabrian Anjanas

Following the rare Spanish Christmas traditions that accompany the festivities in the different regions of the country, it is time to travel to the villages of Cantabria. There, the Anjanas abound, ancestral fairy-like creatures of European folklore. Thus, they are very beautiful and wear floral wreaths and vaporous silk garments. This links them to the Lamias, beings of Greek origin that were characterized by being terrible seducers and kidnappers. This is a personalisation of the demeaning image of the female figure that prevailed at the time. However, their Cantabrian equivalents are much more positive. It is also very similar to the Nymphs, being associated with fountains and water.

Defenders of all that is noble and solidary, the Anjanas reward good behaviour and punish the selfish and cruel. Their arch-enemies are the Ojáncanos and Ojáncanas, terrible and bloodthirsty beings who stole, killed and did all kinds of evil. In Spain there are very similar characters such as the Xanas from Asturias or the Mouras from Galicia.

As far as Christmas traditions are concerned, it is said that every four years they left clothes and tools to the poor. As a result of the rescue of their folklore, which took place in the first third of the 20th century, they ended up replacing the Three Kings. Therefore, she brings gifts, not only to the most disadvantaged, in the early morning of 6 January.

Beatings, gifts and scatology: Tió de Nadal and La Tronca

The most bizarre of all Spanish Christmas traditions are found in Aragón and Catalonia. In these regions they are called respectively La Tronca and Tió de Nadal. It is a derivation of the custom of burning a trunk for the winter solstice. It was a ritual associated with the ancestors and the rebirth in which the ashes of the wood were kept or scattered.

In the western areas of Alto Aragón, such as the area around Jaca, it is still carried out in this way. Several chants bless the Tronca, with children as the protagonists on many occasions. It is finally burnt on the 25th December, the culminating point of Advent. However, in the eastern areas of Huesca and Catalonia everything becomes much more gruesome.

Although there are differences, the essence of the tradition is the same. The wood must have holes and is "looked after" from the beginning of December. Thus, it is covered with a blanket and fed so that it is not hungry. On Christmas Eve, the adults look for an excuse for the children to leave the room and fill their holes with sweets, tangerines and small gifts, which are hidden under the blanket. After that, the children are asked to come back and the good things begin.

The process is known as "hacer cagar a la Tronca" or "Caga Tió". It consists of continuously beating the unfortunate wood so that it poops the presents. These presents fall with the beating that is given. At the same time, festive songs are sung. Finally, after weeks of taking care of it and protecting it from the cold with a blanket, the wood ends up in the fireplace. To give it a more gruesome touch, nowadays it usually has a smiling face drawn on it and in Catalonia a barretina is put on it. A very scatological custom in line with the famous caganer; both being among the weirdest Christmas traditions.

Pastoral dances in the Madrid mountains: the Pastorela

Braojos de la Sierra is a small village in the mountains north of Madrid. It has barely 205 inhabitants and yet it has some curious Christmas traditions. It is the Pastorela. During the Misa del Gallo, around midnight on Christmas Eve, the shepherds would come down to the town in Madrid to pay homage to the Baby Jesus. Re-editing the Christian tradition, they offered a lamb to the figure of Jesus Christ. However, they added a new factor, a dance to the sound of the liturgical choirs.

This custom dates back at least to the 15th century, although it is believed that it may even be from the 13th century. In total there are nine shepherds who dance, led by the Zarragón. This is the one in charge of giving the animal to the newborn Jesus. The choir sings songs in Vulgar Latin, following the lines marked out centuries ago. They use traditional instruments, such as zambombas or castanets. Meanwhile, the costumes worn by the dancers are the traditional shepherd's costume, with their backpacks and leather garments.

Rome's legacy in Mallorca: the Song of the Sybil

To conclude this review, there is one very old liturgical performance, the Song of the Sybil ("Canto de la Sibila"). It consists of a song sung during the Misa del Gallor by a boy or girl, normally dressed in white and carrying a sword. It is also performed by priests or adult women. The organ only intervenes between blocks of verse. It has been played in the Cathedral of Palma de Mallorca, as well as in Balearic churches, without interruption since the medieval Christian conquest until today, only a period of three years without being played in the 16th century. It shares this honour with the Sardinian city of Alghero and is a World Heritage Site.

This Christmas tradition has its roots in the Sibyl of Eritrea, a mythical Roman figure who predicted the end of the world. Christianity did not take long to adapt the character and his predictions, summarised in the poem Judicii Signum. In this way the representation was introduced as early as the Carolingian period, gaining great popularity in southern Europe. Through the Song of the Sibyl, the story of the Last Judgement and the second coming of Christ was brought to the people. At first it was not exclusively associated with Christmas Eve and Christmas.

As time went by, this Christmas tradition became less popular and was finally banned at the Council of Trent during the 16th century. However, although it was lost in the rest of the Kingdom of Aragón, it continued to be performed in Palma de Mallorca, now translated into Mallorcan. Its character as a Gregorian chant evolved over time and was appreciated by the Romantics who came to the island of Mallorca. However, it was only after the Second Vatican Council that women were able to interpret the Song of the Sybil; as they were able to access the baptistery in the liturgy. Today it is being reintroduced in various areas of Valencia and Catalonia.

Ceuta

Rather than a list of typical words from each autonomous community, in this case we have selected a term from the autonomous city of Ceuta.

Mojarra: if you try to look up this word in the dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy you will have to change the j for the h. Moharra is then defined as 'spearhead'. Like many of the words in Spanish, this term comes from Arabic, where moharrab means 'sharp'. In Ceuta, this word is used to refer to gossips, rumours. The expression "darle a la mojarra" is synonymous with criticism.

Galicia

Morriña: used to express a feeling of sadness and nostalgia that is felt when being away from home and loved ones. The simplest translation would be to miss one's own country. The word morriña comes from the Galician-Portuguese morrinha. Despite the fact that we are talking about words that are typical of each autonomous community, the truth is that the use of this word has spread to other parts of Spain.

Reseso: the bread of the day before in Galicia is called reseso bread.

Community of Madrid

Mazo: it is impossible not to hear this word if you step on Madrid soil. It is used as a substitute for very / very much. The main rule to talk like a local is to include 3 mazos for every five words.

Valencian Community

Del tiempo y natural: if what you want is an iced coffee to withstand the high temperatures of the Levante, then you should ask for a café del tiempo. What in the rest of Spain would be understood as a warm coffee, has a totally different meaning there. On the other hand, if you want water at room temperature you have to refer to it as agua natural.

Ché!: for many it is the Valencian word par excellence. It can be used to show any kind of emotion, be it joy, sadness, anger... Let's say it is a catch-all word that not everyone can include in their vocabulary in the same way as a local does. Only the Valencians know how to use it in the right way and at the right time.

Melilla

Masiso: if you like a piece of clothing or an accessory or if it suits you, besides looking good in it, a piece of clothing can be "masisa". In Melilla, masiso is used, therefore, to represent that something fits well.

Asturias

Guaje: among the typical words of each autonomous community, this is one of the best known. In Asturias, children are not children but guajes. Where does the word come from? From something as Asturian as mining. This is what those who washed the coal were called, normally the youngest miners. And why guaje? Because of the English term washer, which would be something like "the one who washes". The RAE has accepted this word as localism of Asturias and León.

Prao, prau: any piece of land with a bit of green is called prau, even if it is what the rest of Spain knows as grass. Special mention should be made of the Asturian village festivals - blessed prau festivals!

Both guaje and prau are two words that we could not leave out of this list of typical words of each autonomous community.

Basque Country

Potear/ poteo: refers to the act of going from bar to bar, normally with a group of friends or family, to have a pote (drink) in each establishment. If the poteo is accompanied by pintxos, to soak up the alcohol, you already have an unbeatable plan.

Gaupasa: going out in gaupasa is like saying in the Basque Country to go out and not come back until the next day. The term comes from the Basque language gaua: night and pasa: to stay, which means to spend the night. If the sun has not risen, it is not considered gaupasa; and if you have breakfast before coming back, even better.

Cantabria

Espáis: this is the name given to sneakers in Cantabria. It is not known for sure where the term comes from, but a possible origin would be the English word spikes. That is, the spikes shoes used in athletics to increase traction and avoid slipping. It is, of course, one of the most curious words typical of each community.

Navarre

Jarrear: means to rain a lot, as if they were throwing jars of water from the sky. In that case it is easy to end up chirriado, that is, soaking wet.

Majico/a: there is nothing more Navarrese than the suffix -ico. Why not add it to the term majo/a to create an even more affectionate name? It is used to refer to someone or something cute, pleasant or nice. When a Navarrese likes someone, he or she is majico/a.

Extremadura

Acho: without a doubt the word you will hear most in Extremadura. Generally used as "man", tío in Spanish, is the diminutive of muchacho, although sometimes combined with the same in an "acho, tío".

Lambuzo/a: according to the RAE, the term refers to a long dog's snout, but in Extremadura it has a different meaning. A lambuzo is someone who is a glutton who likes to eat a lot. It comes from the Latin term lambere, which means to lick. It is one of the most striking typical words of each community.

Region of Murcia

Pijo: in the Murcian slang it has no other function than to fill a silence. Moreover, whether alone or accompanied, it helps to emphasise something. It gives expressions of speed (ir a pijo sacao: go very fast), serves to express quantity (me pegué una pijá de andar: to walk a lot); it adds charisma to somewhat insignificant insults (tontoelpijo!). If you use this term in any of these ways, you are making it clear that you are from Murcia.

Andalusia

Quillo/a: the universal Andalusian word. It is the abbreviation of "chiquillo" (it can be shortened even more: illo/a). Its meaning varies according to the repetitions, "quillo" being a muletilla or a word to refer to someone; "quillo, quillo" to draw attention especially; or "quillo, quillo, quillo" to express imminent danger.

Dar coraje: the closest meaning could be to express anger (not courage). It comes from the word corajina, which would be an outburst of courage, anger or rage. The expression "no estoy enfadado, pero me da coraje" ("I am not angry, but it gives me anger") is used a lot.

Balearic Islands

Acotxat: despite the pleasant temperatures that characterise the Balearic Islands, the locals use the word acotxat to refer to being very covered up. The term is mostly used to refer to someone who covers himself with lots of blankets to sleep on.

Canary Islands

Guagua: any good Canarian will be unwilling to use the word bus to refer to the guagua. The drivers of these buses will not be drivers either, but rather guagueros. The term guagua is of onomatopoeic origin and comes from Cuba. It is the result of the phonetic adaptation of the English word waggon, the name given to the large carts which travelled from the United States to the west of Cuba. It is one of the best known typical words of each autonomous community.

Fleje: fleje means a lot of something. What would be a very, much or a lot for the rest of the Spaniards. "I love you fleje", "there is a fleje (of) children", "it is fleje hot"... As you see, it has not few uses.

Castile La Mancha

Mangurrián: is one of the most well-known typical words used by the people of La Mancha. It can even be heard beyond their borders. It refers to people who are a bit rough and dumb.

Rochero: Manchegans call their fidgets rocheros. They are people who do not spend time at home, who are constantly out and about.

Castile and León

Marchar: a person from Castile and León does not leave any place: marcha. Marchar is used as a synonym for leaving. It is used indiscriminately whether you go on foot, by car or by any other means of transport.

As it is such a large Autonomous Community, it is difficult to find words common to all its provinces to include in this list of words typical of each Autonomous Community.

Aragón

Maño: maños are Aragonese people or people from Aragón. When used by them, it can also acquire the meaning of guy/boy/girl.

Ir de propio: in Aragon you do not do something specific, but rather "de propio". It means leaving what you are doing to go specifically to do something.

Catalonia

Burxar: a word that we should certainly include in the vocabulary of all regions. It means to put pressure on or to incite someone to reveal something. It is also used to refer to the action of messing with another person.

La Rioja

Pantaloneta: in La Rioja, the word "pantaloneta" is used to refer to short trousers. Meanwhile, for the people of La Rioja, a Bermuda is a "pantaloneta pija" used to play golf.

Without a doubt, the typical words of each autonomous community can change the meaning of an expression among Spaniards themselves!

Scandinavian terror reaches Galicia

In the year 844 the first large fleet that would face the Iberian Peninsula arrived in the Cantabrian Sea. The rumours coming from the British Isles and France were terrifying. Entire populations were put to the sword, slaves everywhere, rapes regardless of age or condition... But, above all, a total disdain for Christian symbols. If one is not told why one should be afraid of something that is not seen, it is difficult to be terrified of it. Thus, the sight of the knarrs and drakkars, Nordic ships, was not something that the incipient kingdom of Asturias liked. Gijón was spared when the expedition was only passing through.

The chronicles that tell of this first invasion are mainly the French Annales Bertiniani and that of Alfonso III. They indicate that the area around Brigantium, in the Tower of Hercules in what is now A Coruña, was the place where they landed. The sacking of Galicia would become the favorite activity of the Vikings in Spain. The tactic used was the strandhögg or surprise assault. A tactic comparable to modern warfare, which consisted of mild attempts to find information followed by a savage assault.

Their joy was short-lived, since to their dismay the Gallic and Asturian nobility knew quite well what it was like to be invaded. From Oviedo, Ramiro I mounted an army and inflicted a resounding defeat on the Scandinavians. The balance of the contest is unknown, but it seems that the invaders lost a good number of ships. Likewise, there are theories that suggest that the raid took place in Gijón. Be that as it may, the expedition continued south. It was time to leave for al-Andalus.

The Seville Massacre and the Revenge of the Emir

Abd ar-Rahmān did not see the Viking attack coming. Muslim historians have recorded attacks on Cádiz and its Isla Menor. Following the Guadalquivir, they carried out a tremendous massacre in Coria del Río, with the aim of avoiding any warning to Seville. This was their next target. They managed to plunder the suburbs surrounding the citadel, which nevertheless managed to resist the Scandinavian attack. Again, great massacres and captures of slaves followed the takeover.

Such was the offense that the peninsular Arabs joined forces. Abd ar-Rahman II mounted a powerful army which was joined by the men of Musa ibn Musa al-Qasi. The leader of Banu Qasi, who controlled the lands of Arnedo and Tudela and was a fierce political enemy of the emir, did not hesitate to go south. Revenge would be terrible. The Vikings' surprise tactics were successful in a first round. However, once the situation stabilised, the Moorish horses would be his undoing.

Just as Marcus Crassus, part of the first Roman triumvirate together with Caesar and Pompey the Great, fell in the lands of part of Turkey, the Scandinavians would perish in Andalusia. The mistake in both cases was the same. The foreign forces were infantry, while the locals made great use of cavalry. After taking up positions in Córdoba, the Muslims advanced to Seville. The Vikings had split their forces to maximise damage. In this way, the Arab avant-garde met the fierce warriors of the north several times.

The ultimate blow came near Santiponce. The great army of the emir and his now ally Musa ibn Musa, of thousands of men, swept the Scandinavians away efficiently. Hundreds died and hundreds more were taken prisoner. Dozens of ships were burned and captives recovered. This desperate situation led the defeated to negotiate. So they abandoned their adventure, under the watchful eye of the Umayyad fleet that escorted them in case they changed their minds. Apparently, a few decided to abandon life at sea and stay as citizens of Cordoba, converted to Islam.

Ragnar Lodbrock's son and the Compostela resistance against Vikings

The second great campaign against the peninsula came in 858. It was led by Viking myths: Bjorn Ragnarsson and Hastein. The first was King of Sweden and an offspring of Ragnar Lodbrok. After running out of things to do in Normandy, the Vikings decided to star in a Mediterranean epic. So they set off for the Galician coast. Their great goal was Santiago de Compostela and the cathedral of Iria Flavia. Estuaries like Arousa's made access easy. Again, the beginnings were promising. Great destruction around the final stage of the Way to Santiago was followed by a siege. The solution found was to pay tribute to the invaders.

However, again the rescue would come from the east. Pedro Theon de Pravía was the hero of the hour. At the command of a great Asturian force he planted himself in Santiago by order of the monarch Ordoño I. The chronicles narrate a total defeat of the invaders, calculated in the loss of 38 ships. With a third of the expedition under land or water, Bjorn and Hastein embarked and left Galicia. After small disagreements in Portugal that cost them more ships, the Vikings attacked Algeciras, Seville and Orihuela. They continued to enjoy themselves in Morocco, the Balearic Islands and Italy before returning to the peninsula.

One of the greatest victories of the expedition was in Pamplona. Garcia Iñiguez, its monarch, fell just like the capital of the kingdom that would end up being Navarre. The payment of the ransom was adequate. So much so that legend has it that the ships overturned under the weight of the wealth received. The end of the voyage of Bjorn Ragnarsson and Hastein was similar to that of their predecessors. Once they reached the waters of the emirate, the joint fleets of Cordoba gave them theirs again. The Viking navy stayed on 20 ships and had to sail home. What was left, however, arrived home full of gold.

The last great attempt, the duel between the bishops and the Viking warlord

After the failure of the previous assaults, at the end of the tenth century there was a final and more widespread attempt of incursion. It should be noted that isolated clashes were common, such as the one that occurred on the Portuguese coast in 966, with the Muslims winning. In Galicia, Mondoñedo or Iria Flavia were enclaves used to the Nordic barbarism. However, when 968 arrived there was an invasion that reminded the two previous ones because of the magnitude of the forces used.

Gunderedo, a Scandinavian military leader, arrived in Santiago's surroundings with his armies and caused chaos for years. Again, the surroundings of the holy city were the most affected, but it managed to hold out. Between attacks, this type of favorite target increased its social importance and became stronger. For example, this happened with Seville on the other side of the peninsula. The mitre of Iria/Santiago supposed at that time to be a powerful man. Sisnando was the one who wore it and, as it was his duty in these medieval years, besides being a bishop he was a general of his forces. He fortified Santiago after the scuffles seen in Portugal in 866 and set out to fight against the northerners. Unfortunately, he perished in the fight and Compostela had to pay tribute to the assailants.

However, the Scandinavians did not learn from the past. They were at their ease in Galicia until the new bishop took action. It was Rudesindo or Rosendo. Curiously, he had great struggles with Sisnando. He was his replacement until his colleague entered Santiago in command of an army and threw him out of his chair. Ironically, it was now his turn to save the honor of the diocese in battle.

He led a force together with a Galician nobleman, Gonzalo Sánchez. It seems that the battle took place near Ferrol. Gunderedo was heading for his fleet to load it with the fruits of the looting, and the Astur-Galicians were on top of them. It was 971 and they had been in mischief for three years. However, their luck ended there. All their strength was defeated. Those captured did not suffer better luck than their fallen comrades. The bishop and the nobleman decided that they should be put to the sword. Thus ended the saga of a Viking who became known as king of the sea, with his throat cut, all his men dead and the entire fleet burned.

This was the Viking decline in Spain. However, attacks continued until the 11th century. This generated events like the defeat of Olaf El Santo in Catoira or the legend of the Bispo Santo of Foz. The place where he acted was the cathedral of San Martiño de Mondoñedo, which moved to the interior due to the Scandinavian pressure. Fear and terror, however, served to bring Galicia closer to León and Asturias. It also calmed the internal waters of the emirate and later Caliphate of Córdoba. Almanzor, thanks to its advanced base in Gormaz, would have a similar effect on the Christians in 977, when they conquered Santiago and razed it to the ground. This motivated the frayed enemy side to join elbows to avoid disappearing. A decisive terror only at the level of that generated by the Norse.