How the new Constitution of Spain was created

Since not every main political sensitivity was part of this commission, the negotiations were not performed exclusively and in a formal way in the Congress. There were endless dinners and lunches in reserved areas of restaurants near the Congress of Deputies building. Many leaders of parties who were not included in the redaction commission attended these meetings, which have been popularly known in historiography as ‘tablecloth pacts,’ since they happened in restaurants.

Despite most constitutional speakers belonging to centre and right-wing parties (UCD and AP reunited four out of seven), they did not try to impose their criteria, since consensus prevailed in the writing of each chapter. They could not help but remember the last civil war (1936-1939) and the long exile some of them had suffered. In the commission, there were two leaders who had been part of the reformist wing of Francoist Spain: Gabriel Cisneros and ex-minister Fraga. But there was also Solé Tura, who knew what it felt like to be incarcerated due to political militancy and who had to exile to Paris and Bucharest. Besides, Peces-Barba had been prosecuted due to illegal propaganda by the Court of Public Order.

They aimed to write a text that could be accepted by most political parties. This was incredibly difficult, since there were communist and Francoist parties, as well as unitarist and separatist parties of multiple territories (back at the time, there were political parties that pursued the independence of Catalonia, Basque Country, Galicia and the Canary Islands.) Besides, many representatives and party leaders had suffered war and exile in their homes. For all these reasons, the reconciliation between the so-called ‘two Spains’ was a common purpose.

Two serious threats came along with this difficult emotional situation. On one side, Marxist and independent terrorism, since half a dozen terrorist organisations attacked Spain at the time inspired by both ideologies. On the other hand, there was the involutionist threat of Francoist people, who perpetrated intimidatory acts against libraries and shows and even committed murders. The emerging democracy was threatened by both sides.

It will never be known with certainty whether the inclusion of PNV in the constitutional commission could have got them to support the text. Besides their direct non-participation, Basque nationalists found various difficulties: the non-recognition of the Basque Country as a nation and their originary sovereignty, and the possibility of achieving this independence through a referendum. It was one of the parties’ foundational goals, and they found it unquestionable, so they recommended abstention. The outcome in the Basque Country was abstinence, with more than 50% in Bizkaia and Gipuzkoa, almost doubling the positive votes. The votes of support almost tripled the negative ones.

It was approved by the courts on the 31st of October of 1978 and endorsed by referendum on the 6th of December.

The Spanish Constitution of 1978: source of constant tensions and political disagreements

Since that moment, the main critics of the Constitution have been Basque nationalist parties, who have complained that the transference of competences has been deliberately delayed, submitting them to the parliamentary support of nationalist parties in the parliament. They have also reported the works of the Constitutional Court of Spain to interpret restrictively the competences in general and the Statute of Autonomy of the Basque Country in particular. As more competences have been accumulating in the Basque Government and terrorist threats have been eliminated, PNV has condemned that while they supported the Statute of Autonomy with their votes, it is not the appropriate legal framework to manage their self-government anymore. For this reason, PNV has been insisting on amending the Constitution since 1978.

In regard to Catalonia, the coalition of Convergència i Unió in the first years of the Spanish transition to democracy discarded the option of an economic agreement like those of Navarre and the Basque Country, which they considered an antiquated model. But after many decades of control of the Catalan institution, it decided that it was time to get more competences in line with a federal or confederate model (depending on the member of the coalition.) Since a constitutional reform was necessary, this pretension was blocked. They thought of two ways to achieve their goal: the referendum for the sovereignty or independence of Catalonia and the one-sided declaration of independence. Encouraged by the majority decision of the International Court of Justice, which stated in 2010 that the independence of Kosovo did not violate the international public law, some Catalan parties began to carry out their one-sided way, the declaration of independence. Finally, on the 27th of October 2017, most representatives of the Parliament of Catalonia declared unilaterally the creation of an independent Catalan republic. In response, the Spanish government applied Article 155 of the Constitution, taking control of the Catalan institutions temporarily.

Years after this event, when institutional normalcy had returned to Catalonia, the number of parties that sought a constitutional reform that would transform Spain into a federal or confederate state had increased progressively. Extreme leftist parties are among those who have changed their minds on the Constitution of 1978, and so are the coalitions that have integrated the Communist Party of Spain, which until recently had always advocated for the equality of Spanish citizens.

There are tensions between centre and periphery in every country. Some of them have federal constitutions (such as Switzerland and the United States), and they even went through civil wars in the 19th century for this matter, the most centrist interpretation always prevailing. This is the case of Spain, the second country with the highest altitude in Europe (and more geographically diverse.) Modern states have had a lower capacity of sociopolitical and cultural homogenisation in the preceding centuries, preserving traditions and languages that are less relevant in other states. For Catalonia and Euskadi, with a high level of development equal to or superior to those of the new Baltic states that have successfully joined the European Union since 2004, the change of legal status has become a main objective.

For this reason, tension regarding the extension of government powers and those of the autonomous communities seems far from becoming a reality unless some of these communities get to separate from the state and become its neighbour.

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Around two years later, Fernando Rodríguez de Castro got married to Constanza Osorio, daughter of Osorio Martínez, Count of León. When King Alfonso VII de León died in 1157, Count Osorio Martínez lost the support of the new king, Ferdinand II the Catholic. Conde Osorio decided to expatriate to Castile where his son-in-law’s family, the Castros, exercised the regency due to King Alfonso VIII being only 2 years old.

But the political climate in Castile was very unstable. In 1159, the Laras took the regency of Castile from the Castros, so Fernando Rodríguez de Castro and his vassals had to expatriate to León. An authentic civil war was held between the House of Lara and the House of Castro, and ironically enough, Count Osorio Martínez turned against his son-in-law, supporting the Laras in the struggle for power. 

A few months after Fernando and his people’s exile to Ferdinand II of León’s court, the Castros and their army came back to Castile. In March of 1160, the armies of the Castros and the Laras fought in the Battle of Lobregal. At one point, Fernando found himself fighting against his father-in-law and killed Count Osorio Martínez in combat.

The battle concluded with the victory of the House of Castro, who captured many knights from the Laras’ army. Fernando gained so much prestige that he became majordomo mayor of Ferdinand II, his right-hand man. In León, Fernando received the nickname of ‘the Castilian.’

Five years later, he repudiated his wife, Constanza Osorio, and married his cousin, Stephanie Alfonso, King Ferdinand II’s stepsister. While he was 41 years old, she must have been around 18 years old.

Three years later, at Fernando’s wedding, he joined his king in a surprise campaign in Badajoz. The Almohad city was being besieged by the famous Portuguese king Sempavor. The King of León feared that, if the Portuguese conquered the city, he would lose his rights over it, so the Leonese attacked the Portuguese and gave it back to the Almohads. Fernando de Castro showed a heroic performance in Badajoz, and he was actually the one who captured the legendary Portuguese knight. In exchange for his freedom, Sempavor gave him the fortresses of Trujillo, Montánchez, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, and Monfragüe. Fernando also had the right to own the city of Cáceres, but he ceded it to his lord, the King of León.

Fernando de Castro’s new territories were located in an area that, according to the Treaty of Sahagún, had to be reconquered by the Kingdom of Castile. So Fernando, despite being the vassal of the King of León, became the owner of a small, independent state. Since he was not his vassal anymore, he did not have to obey him. In spite of his independence, he stayed loyal to the Kingdom of León. The following year, in 1171, his wife was legitimated and received the title of Infanta of León. Thus, Fernando Castro the Castilian culminated his rise: he became an independent lord and a member of the Leonese royalty by marriage.

The brand-new Infanta of León and her wife must have established their residence in their main stronghold: Trujillo. That is where, on the night of July 1st of 1180, the drama might have happened. One of the maids wore Stephanie’s garments to a date with her lover. But Fernando woke up and caught the lovers in the act.

Believing that Stephanie was cheating on him, he stabbed the man until he died and then began chasing the woman, who ran as fast as possible to Stephanie’s bedroom. When Fernando came into the room, he found Stephanie asleep and naked and stabbed the unfortunate girl until she died.

Many servants came into the room holding torches, and Fernando realised that Stephania would not have had time to take off her garments. When they registered the room, the maid was found under the bed, wearing Stephanie’s dress. Fernando realised that the woman he had seen was the maid, and his wife was actually innocent. A heartbroken Fernando tied a rope to his neck and visited King Ferdinand II with the dagger he had killed his wife with, willing to accept whatever punishment he deserved.

Although Stephanie was King Ferdinand II’s stepsister, whom he had just met, he refused to punish Fernando. Besides, he decided to honor Stephanie by burying her in the Royal Pantheon, with his grandmother. The following words were carved on her grave: “Here lies Infant Stephanie, granddaughter of Emperor Alfonso, wife of the powerful lord Fernando Rodríguez.”

When the unfortunate knight died in 1185, the King of Castile claimed that the fortresses of Fernando de Castro’s small state became his. Their defense was entrusted to the knighthoods of Santiago and San Julián de Pereira.

In 1604, Lope de Vega, inspired by this story, wrote his play "La desdichada Estefanía." No trace of this story could be found in Trujillo, but it is likely that it happened here. And this is why Stephanie is known as ‘the Unfortunate.’

Text by Ignacio Suárez-Zuloaga and illustration by Ximena Maier.

An aurora or the Apocalypse?

When the coronavirus arrived in Europe, panic quickly spread. And this is a society that is constantly connected. Social networks, television, press, radio... It is even difficult not to find out what is happening minute by minute. However, in the 20th century, many of these media did not exist. Sometimes you had to wait until the day after an event to find out about it. This created confusion and the most impossibile conspiracy theories.

That is what happened on January 25, 1938. A red color had suddenly emerged from the skies. In Spain, the Civil War had already claimed thousands of dead. In Europe, the situation was unstable and the fear of a second world war was growing. In this situation, together with a meteorological phenomenon that the great majority of Spaniards had never seen before, it was easy for people to make a multitude of conjectures.

Suddenly, at eight o'clock in the evening, northern lights appeared in the peninsular skies. Many Spaniards thought it was a divine punishment derived from the massacres of the war. Others believed that the red color was related to the blood of all the victims of the war. Meanwhile, some saw in that natural spectacle the flames of an immense fire. There were also those who saw in those lights a clear sign of the Apocalypse.

The prophecy of Virgin of Fatima

Thus, each family and each place experienced that event in its own way. In the villages of Granada, for example, many families ran to the countryside, scared. 'My father remembers that my grandmother did not stop crying for several weeks, until she received a letter from her two soldier sons from the Guadalajara front,' narrates Gabriel Pozo in an article in the Granada Independent. 'The blood she saw in the sky was not theirs. He never understood that it was an aurora borealis,' he adds.

In the front of Teruel, a city that had just been recovered from the hands of the Republican army, both sides believed that the glow of that sky was caused by a unknown weapon until the moment. A weapon that was not in their hands, but in those of their opponent. From Madrid, as described by the ABC newspaper, it was thought that the mountains of El Pardo were burning with virulence. In Barcelona the morale of the troops was seriously affected by those reddish flares.

The testimonies followed one after the other, each one more apocalyptic than the last. One of the theories that circulated in those days was the one of the prophecy of the Virgin of Fatima, especially among the most believers. This prophecy said: 'When you see a night illuminated by an unknown light, know that this is the great sign given to you by God that he is about to punish the world for its crimes, by means of war, hunger...'. For some, the occurrence of that phenomenon, together with the outbreak of World War II, could only mean one thing: the prophecy of the virgin was true.

Polar Auroras in the south

That sky had, however, a completely rational explanation. It was a polar aurora, called aurora borealis if they occur in the northern hemisphere and aurora australis if they occur in the southern hemisphere. Auroras are formed when a stream of electrically charged particles emitted by the sun reaches the Earth. When these particles come into contact with the planet they collide with the atoms and molecules of the atmosphere following the lines of the Earth's magnetic field, so they enter through the poles.

Without going into too much detail, it is this collision that emits a light visible to humans in shades of green, purple, blue, yellow or even, as in this case, red. When the sun emits more particles than usual, a geomagnetic storm is produced that makes it possible to see the northern lights in other points of the planet closer to the equator.

This phenomenon occurs in the world, more or less, a couple of times every hundred years. 1706, 1870, 2000 or 2003 are some of the dates in which the northern lights have decided to come down to pay a pleasant visit to more southern latitudes. The Carrington phenomenon stands out, when, in 1859, the auroras were seen in Havana. The auroras of 1938 and 1859 are, for now, the most virulent geomagnetic storms in recorded history. More than an Apocalypse or a doomsday weapon, a spectacle to behold. Although when people who have known each other all their lives are being killed, it is normal to interpret it in the most extreme way.

You can also read this article in Spanish here.

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Why was Trasmoz excommunicated?

To understand what happened in Trasmoz we have to travel back in time to the Middle Ages, specifically to the year 1255. At that time, wood was elementary for any family to lead a dignified life. It was used for everything: to heat the houses, to make tools or to build basic furniture. All the neighbors got it from the same place: Monte de la Mata.

The locals came into conflict with the abbot of the Monastery of Veruela over the supply of wood. There was a lot of tension between both parties. It must be taken into account that the power of an abbot in those times was immense. Well, he wanted to collect all the taxes from the town of Trasmoz, which did not belong to the Church. This is the origin of the iniquity. One day, fed up with the situation and claiming his authority, the ecclesiastic was emboldened and began the process to officially excommunicate the town, leaving it outside the Catholic Church. Trasmoz was expelled from the kingdom of heaven for all eternity, according to the Church.

The second curse

Three centuries later, the abbot of the monastery and the lord of Trasmoz, Pedro Manuel Ximénez de Urrea, were once again entangled in a quarrel. Everything became entangled. On this occasion it was not over firewood but over water, which, diverted by the clergyman, did not reach the families of the town for their water supply. The dispute reached such a point that the Cortes of Aragon interceded between the two parties, giving reason to the lord of Trasmoz and, therefore, to the whole town.

The abbot, enraged, in the early hours of a dark and sinister night, covered with a black veil the cross that was on the altar of the church and began to read aloud Psalm 108 of the Holy Bible: ¡Who will lead me to the fortified city? And did you not go out, O God, with our armies? Give us help against the adversary, for vain is the help of man'.

Each verse, according to the legend, was accompanied by a bell, a sign that the whole village was aware of the evil spell. In this way, the lord of Trasmoz was cursed again with all his descendants and the whole town, until the present day. Although this case has reached the ears of the Vatican, no Pope to date, not even Francis, has lifted the punishment on the village of Trasmoz.

A 'cursed' place but really attractive for tourism.

Currently the people of the village consider themselves as 'cursed-blessed', taking with some irony and humor the title of 'the only excommunicated village in Spain'. In fact, from a touristic point of view, the title is welcome, as the Monastery of Trasmoz receives a significant number of visitors every year. Not only because it is a site on which gravitate all the legends of the town and its surroundings, many of which have nothing to do with religion, but also because Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer was a refugee nearby.

The poet recovered in the surroundings from a severe tuberculosis for more than a year. It was said that the air in the area was good for his battered lungs. He used to walk to Trasmoz to write and be inspired. So much so that he dedicated to Trasmoz and its castle up to three letters of his book Desde mi celda (From my cell). There is a beautiful monument to the romantic poet, the work of Luigi Maráez, which can still be visited today. Bécquer has been and is very important in the mythology and history of Trasmoz. As a curious fact, it is worth mentioning that a chapter of the famous television series El Ministerio del Tiempo, dealt with the history of Trasmoz and Bécquer, adding a lot of fiction. The chapter is called Tiempo de Hechizo (time of spell).

The big question today remains the same: how long will the excommunication of Trasmoz last? Although the town's relations with the Church are cordial and normal, that is, Catholic events continue to be held, the fact is that the excommunication has not been revoked, nor has it been officially pardoned, or anything similar. Many ask if it is time to address and close this issue, others prefer that the town maintains its enigmatic and cursed air, because after all it has been a reason to visit for many tourists and curious.

The best time to visit Trasmoz is precisely at the end of October or beginning of November. Then the festival of the Light of the Souls is celebrated, which honors the dead and proceeds to the collection of pumpkins with their respective decoration workshops. The day usually culminates with the procession of the souls, which draws a path from the village church to the cemetery. It is all very spooky and eerie... and really fascinating.

You can also read this article in Spanish and French.

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The lovers of Teruel: silly him, silly her

In the early 13th century, a young boy and a young girl from Teruel grew up together and built a true friendship. They were Isabel de Segura and Juan Martínez de Marcilla. Their friendship later turned into something different when the friends developed deeper feelings for each other. So the idea of getting married was brought up. But the girl’s father didn’t agree with them and refused to give her hand in marriage.

The boy wasn’t rich enough to marry her daughter, Pedro de Segura thought. She had to marry a man who could financially support her and her future children. And it occurred to Juan that he would travel in search of much-needed financial stability for five years so her father would give him his blessing. After his return, they would get married. Isabel promised to wait for him, and he left.

The promise to wait

Isabel had just turned 20 years old. According to her father, it was time for her to get married. Five years had passed since Juan left, looking for a better life. No one had heard any news about him. For this reason, the girl accepted to marry another man, the lord of the town of Albarracín, whose name was Pedro Fernández de Azagra. The wedding took place shortly after, on the last day of those five years of waiting. The party was fantastic. The bells tolled loudly, and the people celebrated the union with great emotion. A man riding a horse showed up during the celebrations. He wanted to know what people were celebrating and soon found out that Isabel had married Pedro Fernández de Azagra.

The newcomer was Juan. And when he heard those words, his heart skipped a beat, but he wouldn’t let go of Isabel so easily.

That night, Juan appeared by Isabel’s bed and asked for one last kiss. Since she was married now, she refused to do so. He asked one more time, and Isabel said no again. In that moment, Juan’s heart gave up and fell dead to the ground. When Isabel realised he had passed away, she woke up her new husband and told him everything. Fearing that Pedro would be accused of killing her wife’s former boyfriend, they both decided to take the body to her father.

Forever longing

A funeral was held so people could say their goodbyes. Isabel attended the funeral, determined to give him that last kiss he never got to receive before bidding farewell, possessed by nostalgia and guilt. And so she did. When she reached his body, she removed his shroud and kissed his cold lips. It was such a powerful kiss that it took her life away, and she fell dead on the man’s chest.

They were buried in the San Pedro Church, where they spend eternity together. At least that’s the common belief about the two mummies supposed to be them, which were found here in 1533. The chapel where their bodies were discovered was named Capilla de los Amantes (Lovers’ Chapel) in their honour. In 1955, the Spanish sculptor Juan de Ávalos y Taborda carved two new graves for the young couple. They rest together now, next to each other, but without really touching each other. Two approaching hands and ten fingers trying to intertwine will never get to do so. Forever longing.

Las Bodas de Isabel de Segura

Every year, on the weekend near the 14th of February, the festivities known as Las Bodas de Isabel de Segura (literally, Isabel de Segura’s wedding) are held in Teruel. This theatrical performance shows everything that happened in Teruel in the 13th century, Juan and Isabel’s story.

The play consists of 60 acts and the performance takes four days to be completed. Thousands of actors take part in it. In 2007, it was declared a Fiestas of Tourist Interest in Aragón. It became a Fiesta of National Tourism Interest a few years later, in 2016. This is a once-in-a lifetime experience, an exceptional way to dive into Teruel’s tradition through a story or legend, since it isn’t really known which parts are true and which are fictional. If you're ever in Teruel near Valentine's Day, you shouldn't miss the opportunity to enjoy the story (or legend) that led to a popular Spanish saying: "Los amantes de Teruel: tonta ella, tonto él" ("The lovers of Teruel, silly him, silly her").

History…

The stem of the dolmen consists of three stones disposed vertically, holding a flat capstone in horizontal position. There is every indication that this monument was built to accommodate the remains of the dead. It was discovered in 1935, and we can observe that it has different sections. The burial chamber consists of nine slabs, and there are five more forming a passage.

During the excavation works conducted in the las century, archaeologists found there several ancient items, along with human remains. Some of them, like axes and pottery shards, allowed them to determine that the monument belongs to the time period between the Chalcolithic, about 5000 years ago, and the Bronze Age, about 3000 years ago.

…and legend

The studies carried out by Jose Miguel Barandiaran Aierbe, a Basque researcher whose works mainly focused on the folklore of the Basque Country, let us explore a couple of interesting details here. For example, the origin of the monument’s name. It seems like it was given that name because, every year early in the morning of Saint John's Eve, the inhabitants of Elvillar hear a chant coming from this spot. However, when they get closer looking for the singer, they find that there’s no one there. Legend has it that, in times of the Inquisition, this dolmen was used by a coven of witches to perform their akelarre rituals —the connection here seems clear.

To this day, the inhabitants of Elvillar still commemorate the legend every 14^th of August by staging a dramatization of the witches' sabbath. Not long ago, this act was held in the very dolmen, but Elvillar’s council decided to move it to the town’s square to make it easier to access. It might have lost the magic of the original landscape, but it’s still an enchanting sight.

When the West arrived at Formosa, current Taiwan

In the 17^th century, when Spain was still a powerful Empire—although its downfall had already begun, Mexico had an important trade network with China. They conducted it through the island of Manila, the current capital of the Philippines. Back then, both the American and the Asian countries belonged to the declining Spanish Empire.

Right in the north of the Philippine island, very close to the Chinese province of Fujian, there was an island called Formosa, which means “beautiful island” in Portuguese. Indeed, the first Europeans to arrive at Taiwan in 1582 were Portuguese sailors from the Iberian Union.

Meanwhile, the Dutch were allowed by the Ming Chinese dynasty to settle in Formosa, with the aim of trading with the Asian giant. It was 1624, and Taiwan had managed to stay out of the colonising target of the hungry western empires.

In this context, the Dutch settled in the north of Formosa and founded the colony of Orange, which would later on come to be called Fort Zeelandia and, eventually, Anping. This colony seemed to pose a threat for the Spaniards ruling the Philippines, and therefore, in 1626, 200 men under the command of Antonio Carreño Valdés landed in the north of Formosa, in today’s Keelung.

The Spanish colony in Formosa

After the landing, those Spaniards founded the harbour of La Santísima Trinidad in the bay of Jilung, and they renamed the island as Todos los Santos. This way, the Spaniards spread through the northern region founding villages like Castillo in the area of Tamusi, currently near Danshui, or conducting evangelising missions to convert native people to Christianity.

The Dutch did not take this well, and they became aware that the Spanish presence constituted a threat. Hence, in 1630, the former attacked the latter by sea. The Spaniards were able to repel the attack, but they still had to pay a high price for it: they lost communication with the island of Manila, who stopped sending them supplies. The Spaniards were forced to seek supplies in inland Taiwan, and they did so by implementing heavy taxes on the native population. In 1636, those native inhabitants rose up against the village of Castillo, slaughtering half of the Spanish troops.

The Dutch attacking by sea. The natives, by land. Typhoons, malaria… All these elements compelled the Spaniards of Tamusi to leave the place and gather in La Santísima Trinidad, the first spot where a Spaniard set foot in Taiwan. The colony remained there until 1642, when the Dutch troops finally conquered it. The Spanish presence in Taiwan had finally come to an end, after no more than 16 years.

Today we will explore the footprints of the battles that took place in Madrid during the Spanish Civil War, which was fought from 1936 to 1939 between the Republican and the Nationalist factions. These vestiges have remained there since, but it is only recently that people have begun to seek routes to explore them as a way to reconnect with the past and avoid repeating it. 

Madrid’s defence, the longest siege of the war

Before we start exploring the fronts of the Spanish Civil War in Madrid, let’s quickly discuss how the conflict unfolded in the capital of Spain. The Spanish Civil War broke out between the 17 and 18 July 1936. The coup d’état of the Nationalists was successful in some cities, but not in all of them. In some places, the armed forces remained loyal to the Spanish Republic. Madrid was one of those places. 

Due to its economic, strategic and political significance, the capital of Spain quickly became a prime target for the Nationalists. So much so, that they sent troops from different fronts to seize it. However, all the attempted attacks failed, and so Nationalist general and later fascist dictator Francisco Franco decided to focus on other fronts, considering that taking over Madrid would not be easy and the Spanish Civil War was probably going to be a long one. Madrid resisted the rebel attacks, although the Republican faction was not able to perform a successful counter-attack either. Meanwhile, the capital of Spain was forced to fight hunger and bombings. 

Madrid’s defence ended up with the coup d’état led by Segismundo Casado against the government of Juan Negrín. Franco’s troops finally entered the city on the 28th March 1939, ending the longest siege of the Spanish Civil War. 

The most important fronts of the Spanish Civil War in Madrid

Conflicts in the mountains of Madrid

As we said before, after the outburst of the Spanish Civil War, Madrid became a prime target for the Nationalist faction. The capital had to fight the troops of General Emilio Mola in the north and the troops led by Francisco Franco in the south. This way, the mountain ranges of Guadarrama and Somosierra became strategic locations for the battles fought in Madrid. 

Indeed, the mountains of Madrid witnessed a series of fierce battles fought between the two factions. Nevertheless, this front came to a standstill in September, and it remained that way until the end of the war. There are many vestiges of the battles that took place there, like the battle of Frente del Agua. The publishing house Ediciones Desnivel has released a guide comprising 58 routes that navigate the battlefields of the Spanish Civil War in the mountain ranges of Rincón, Guadarrama and Malagón. 

These include the routes of Puerto de Guadarrama-La Sevillana-Alto del León, the route of Frente del Agua or the one of Guadarrama-Los Tomillares. Thanks to them, the traveller can discover different traces from the war, such as machine-gun nests or blinded vantages. 

The battle of the University City of Madrid

Another remarkable military operation that took place in Madrid during the Spanish Civil War was the battle of the University City of Madrid. In November, the Nationalists, led by General Varela, took possession of the highest point of Casa de Campo, the hill of Garabitas. They also crossed the river of Manzanares, although they did meet Republican resistance. After that, they settled in the Escuela de Arquitectura of the University City. Meanwhile, the Republicans took the area around the faculties of medicine, pharmacy and dentistry, this way stopping the advance of the Nationalist troops. 

The University City of Madrid soon became a battlefield. They fought using trenches, just as in World War I. We can still see the holes left by projectiles in some of the buildings on campus, although most of them have been restored or rebuilt at this point. Despite the hard battle, none of the factions could improve its position. The Republicans did not retrieve the positions they lost, and the Nationalists were not able to advance anymore. 

The latter entrenched themselves on the hill of Garabitas, and they took advantage of the strategic location to bomb the city centre of Madrid for the rest of the war. The street that suffered the most was the popular Gran Vía, which got to be known as “the howitzer avenue”. At the same time, the air strikes, which had been going on since August, got even worse. 

“I would rather destroy Madrid than let the Marxists have it”, claimed General Franco. He implemented an action plan to demoralise the inhabitants of Madrid through air strikes. The aim of the Francoist army was to force the capital to surrender by decimating their population and buildings and, ultimately, their hope. But Republicans never gave up, although authorities reported that by early April 1937, air strikes had resulted in more than 900 deaths, almost 3000 injured and the destruction of almost 1000 buildings. 

The battle of the University City of Madrid came to an end with the meeting of Leganés. There, Franco decided to give up on Madrid as his main military target, which involved acknowledging that the war would be long and a case of attrition warfare. 

The battle of the Jarama

After their attempt to surround Madrid from the north-west failed, the Nationalists tried to attack from the southeast with the aim of cutting off communications with Valencia, the capital’s main source of supply. This assault is known as the battle of the Jarama, and it lasted from the 5th to the 25th February 1937.

We can find traces of the battle in the municipalities of Morata de Tajuña, Arganda del Rey and Rivas, among other places nearby. The hill of Suicidio and Alto del Pingarrón are some of its most significant spots. There are others too, like the underground passages of Valparaíso or the monument to the International Brigades next to the rail trail of Arganda del Rey. Of course, there are plenty of trenches as well. 

The Nationalist troops were defeated in this battle and in the battle of Guadalajara too, so Franco decided to focus on other fronts, and his troops in the capital stayed in a defensive position. 

The battle of Brunete

The battle of Brunete was different to the other conflicts, because it was the Republican faction who attacked here. They did so for two different reasons. To start with, they wanted to isolate the Nationalist troops so that they would stop the siege over Madrid. Second, they tried to distract them from other battles on different fronts.

Almost 40 000 people died on both sides of the battle. One of the main vestiges that have remained is the bunker of Valdemorillo, a strategic point for the Republican faction. There are buildings in this town, such as the church in the main square, that still have scars from the bullets that hit them. The battle of Brunete came to an end in late July, the Republicans did not achieve their goals and it would become the last great conflict of the battle of Madrid. 

Other remnants of the Spanish Civil War in Madrid

We have discussed the main fronts of the Spanish Civil War in Madrid, but there are many other traces of the conflict throughout the Community of Madrid. For instance, the city centre of the capital holds the air raid shelter of the Buen Retiro Park or the bunker of El Capricho, better known as Posición Jaca. It is also one of the best-preserved bunkers of Europe. 

When it comes to the outskirts of the city, it is worth mentioning Blockhaus-13, a concrete bunker that lies only a couple of kilometres from Colmenar de Arroyo. It was declared an Asset of Cultural Interest and it is one of the most significant pieces of military architecture from the Spanish Civil War that we can still visit in Madrid. 

New moon: the origin of the werewolf of Allariz

The story of Manuel Blanco Romasanta is the first case of a serial killer that has ever been recorded in Spain. The peculiar conditions under which he murdered his victims and his strong conviction that he was actually a werewolf quickly brought this case to the spotlight. But let us start from the beginning: who was the werewolf of Allariz?

In order to unearth the story of the Galician lycanthrope, we will have to travel back to the early nineteenth century. Manuel Blanco Romasanta was born in 1809, in a small village in Ourense called Regueiro. There have been multiple debates regarding their gender, since Romasanta’s birth certificate said Manuela: the female version of Manuel. The child had mixed sexual traits, and their parents first believed the kid was a girl. We are probably talking about an intersexual person, but it was the nineteenth century and they did not have the tools to name it, so we cannot be sure about that either. Considering it is not possible to ask them personally, we will rely on the fact that Manuel lived most of their life as a man despite being assigned otherwise at birth.

One of the things we know about Romasanta is the fact that he was 1.37 metres tall. He was blond and kind, a person that could easily fit in and become a respectable member of society. He could read and write, which was quite uncommon at the time. Indeed, he wrote letters and documents for his neighbours. He would eventually use that skill to cover the traces of his crimes, as we will see later on. Apart from that, he worked as a tailor and had quite a common life. Then, how was the monster born?

First quarter: the nightmare begins

Manuel got married to a woman called Francisca Gómez Vázquez. Sadly, she passed away very soon. This could have triggered the transformation of the werewolf of Allariz, although we cannot really know that for sure. Either way, Romasanta left his job as a tailor and he started working as a peddler, mostly travelling through Portugal.

The following time period is rather obscure. His trading activities were mainly focused on selling soap and ointments. According to some rumours, he used human grease to make them. Romasanta managed to go more or less unnoticed, and he even gained the trust of the people around him. He knew the paths and forests of Galicia like the back of his hand, and he offered to lead people through the woods, mainly women travelling with their kids searching for a better future. Of course, those ships never sailed, and those women and children were never seen again. The victims of the werewolf were doomed to wander among the crooked trees of the forest for all eternity.

In fact, the modus operandi of the werewolf of Allariz was significantly marked by its main element: the stage of the Galician forests. He eventually admitted that, on full moon nights, he would walk into the forest and crawl in the dark, under the silver silhouettes of the mountains, waiting for his prey to arrive. When they fell into his trap, Romasanta dismembered them and fed on their corpses, allegedly controlled by the primitive instincts of a wolf. He spent days out in the woods, going through a transformation which, whether we believe it or not, was certainly bloody and disturbing.

Romasanta’s literacy allowed him to impersonate his victims by writing letters on their behalf, pretending these people had reached their destinations. In said letters, he assured his victims were safe and sound; that they had found fantastic jobs in the places they expected to reach. Nevertheless, those disappearances began to raise suspicion over time, and the letters were no longer effective. Besides, they found some of the disappeared people’s belongings among the items Romasanta was selling as a peddler, and the mysterious origin of his ointments began to unsettle the inhabitants of the village he was living in. As a consequence, the cover of Romasanta’s murders began to crumble, and he was forced to run away.

Full moon: the last howls of the werewolf of Allariz

Wherever the werewolf of Allariz set his foot, people began to disappear. They finally arrested him in Toledo, in 1852, and he was brought back to Allariz for a trial. The judge declared he was in full possession of his mental faculties when he committed his crimes, and therefore he had to be responsible for his actions. Either way, Romasanta became the first known case of clinical lycanthropy.

Manuel Blanco Romasanta admitted to nine accusations of murder. Depending on the source we check, the real number ascends to 13 or 17 homicides. When he was called to testify, he claimed that he transformed into a werewolf every full moon night, and sometimes that state lasted a few days, even a week. It is worth noting that, the day he got arrested, Romasanta carried a lunar calendar with him. What is more, he blamed the spell of a witch for his condition. When he was asked to prove he could turn into a werewolf, Romasanta argued that the curse only lasted for a limited number of years, and therefore he was no longer able to use that supernatural power.

The trial lasted a year more or less, and the sentence was passed on 6 April 1853. According to the judge’s final decision, Manuel Blanco Romasanta was sentenced to death by garrotte. However, and against all odds, the defence lawyer managed to avoid the death sentence for lack of evidence, and the case was brought to the Supreme Court of Spain. Not only that: a French doctor called Mr. Philips begged the then queen of Spain, Isabel II, to spare Romasanta’s life in order to study his case. The queen accepted the request, and Romasanta ended up being sentenced to life imprisonment.

The werewolf of Allariz passed away in 1863, at the age of 54, in a prison in Ceuta. The official news stated that he had died of stomach cancer, although there are theories supporting it was his cellmates who killed him. It is hard to know, just as difficult it is to imagine those nights where this silhouette surrounded by fogs and mystery roamed through the purple woods of Galicia, under the pearly beams of the moon, both the ally and the enemy of a beast that uttered its last howl a long time ago.

There is no doubt that the Beach of the Cathedrals radiates magic. Some might even mean this literally, since there are countless stories set in this mysterious landscape. Most of them have been told from one generation to the next, like a myth that will not leave these extraordinarily beautiful rocks.

The beach of a thousand stories

Praia das Catedrais is also a beach full of legends. Perhaps the most popular one is the story of two men that were seized by the sea. Two unfortunate sailors who fell under the mermaids’ spell, and were trapped in a cage of sea foam. Their souls have been confined for centuries between water and rocks, inside passageways that can only be seen if one stays with the feet on the sand for too long. At least that’s what they say.

According to popular beliefs, this place is the portal between two worlds: the world of the land and the world of the sea. A great archway diving into the ocean would be the gate. If we get to see the sunset at the exact moment the tide is at its lowest, legend says that the old pagan gods will grant us any wish we want.

When night falls, new possibilities arise. Seamen say that, in the darkest of nights, one can see bright spots guiding them to the gate to another world. Those would be the eyes of the mermaids, who, according to the oldest tales, and despite the malice they are usually attributed to, always light the path back home.

Moreover, this gate between two worlds could light up at any time. The lucky person who beholds that will be able to bring back the past or predict the future.

As we said, the Beach of the Cathedrals is a magical place. Therefore, and considering its cultural and natural value, we should take good care of it. In the last few years, tourists have flocked to this spectacular spot, and although it makes perfect sense to want to immerse in the legends of the beach, we should not let fantasy interfere with our need to preserve it.

Columbus Day, a tribute to Italian immigrants

Columbus Day is an American holiday that became official in 1934, although it had been celebrated much earlier in some states and cities in the country. It commemorates the arrival of Christopher Columbus in America. In other words, it coincides in terms of dates and events with Hispanity Day, but it is very different from the latter.

Thus, while in Spain this holiday is a source of national pride, which has recently been controversial, in the United States it is a day of pride for the Italian-American community. The latter claim the figure of Christopher Columbus as their own in order to legitimise their presence in the country. As a kind of tribute to their ancestors. It must be understood that for them, as the president of the Order of Italian Sons and Daughters of America noted in an article in The New York Times in 2018, 'it serves as a unifying factor'.

That's why every second Monday in October, the United States celebrates a national holiday, with different events in different cities. One of the highlights is the celebration in New York and its Little Italy. The city that never sleeps organises a parade of floats which, as mentioned above, passes along Fifth Avenue until it reaches the Columbus Circle rotunda, presided over by a statue of the navigator given to the city by the Italians in 1892. Tens of thousands of people gather for this display.

During Columbus Day, it has also been a tradition to light up the Empire State Building in the colours of the Italian flag. All this is done in the name of Columbus' supposed Genoese origin, a theory that has not yet been proven, although it is the most widespread. In any case, even if this hypothesis were true, with this claim the Italian-American community only takes into account the individuality of Columbus. In other words, they leave aside the fact that it was the Catholic Monarchs who financed the expedition and that the conquest was carried out in the name of the Kingdom of Castile.

Controversy is served

However, over the course of time, opposing positions to the celebration of this day have emerged. As is well known, Columbus' arrival in America brought with it the discovery of a new world for Europe. However, it should not be forgotten that for many indigenous communities living there it was not only not a discovery, but also their subjugation and extermination. Thus, indigenous peoples such as the Sioux, Squamish and Chippewa were massacred after this event. This is why more and more American cities are deciding to replace this day with Indigenous Peoples' Day, to commemorate those who suffered from the occupation.

The first metropolis to renounce Columbus Day was Berkeley, a Californian city. Others such as Dallas, Seattle, Washington DC and Los Angeles followed in its footsteps. In total, around 56 cities have abandoned the holiday and given it a different focus. In May 2021, controversy also erupted in New York because public schools decided to remove the date from school calendars.

The mysterious origin of Columbus

The celebration of Columbus Day, as mentioned above, is based on the theory that Columbus was of Genoese, and therefore Italian, origin. This is the most widely accepted guess at the moment, but it is not proven and there are many others. It is said that the discoverer of America could have been Galician, Catalan, Valencian, Castilian, Portuguese... Christopher Columbus left many doubts about his origin and even more about that of his family. Several lines of investigation remain open. In the meantime, many American cities, fewer and fewer in number, continue to celebrate Columbus Day. Italian flags fly in the Big Apple, usurping the legacy that the Spanish claim as theirs.

Washington Irving and Granada, a Romantic love story

Romantic authors like Irving found extreme beauty in cultures regarded as exotic, the distant past, legends and myths from all over the world. When he first visited Andalusia to work on his research on Christopher Columbus, Washington Irving fell madly in love with its Arab history, unique architecture and rich folklore.

However, the city that charmed him the most was doubtlessly Granada. This Andalusian gem deeply inspired the writer, and one can follow his footsteps through its streets, squares and monuments. There are even routes dedicated to exploring his presence in the city.

Sleeping in the Alhambra, a tale of legends and recognition

On his second visit to Granada, Irving managed to stay in the very Alhambra. He wanted to experience its palaces at night, when the monument became more mysterious and magical. He slept in two different rooms, first in the palace of Carlos V and then in the so-called Salas de las Frutas. The writer sometimes had breakfast at the famous Court of the Lions, and he became obsessed with the charms of this fortress complex.

Preservation of a timeless palace

Irving was surprised to find out that the Alhambra did not get the recognition it deserved. Back in the 19^th century, the state of the monument was not the same as it is today. In fact, he was shocked when he realised that some of its walls were covered in graffiti. To prevent people from marking their visit on the ancient walls, he created the first guest book of the Alhambra, which keeps welcoming signatures of travellers today. This is only a part of the legacy Washington Irving left in Granada.

Indeed, his fight for the preservation of the treasure of Islamic architecture did not end there. He wrote articles highlighting the importance of the preservation of the Alhambra, as well as dwelling on the need to give this complex the value and recognition it deserved. This is how he earned a place in the history of Granada.

In fact, the city still remembers the North American writer. In 2009, they built a bronze statue of Washington Irving for the 150th anniversary of his death. It lies next to the Alhambra, surrounded by trees. One can read an inscription that says “son of the Alhambra”.

Tales of the Alhambra

Irving’s fascination with this monument made him dive into the culture of Granada in search of its forgotten stories. He looked for legends and folk tales about the Alhambra in every corner of the city, and he gathered them in Tales of the Alhambra. This collection of stories and essays includes history, myth and description. Most of the tales were written during his residence in the Alhambra, but others were added at a later stage. It was published in 1832, four years after his visit, and it provides an in-depth look into the palaces through the lenses of Washington Irving. We will end this journey with an excerpt from a chapter called "Palace of the Alhambra":

“How many legends and traditions, true and fabulous, —how many songs and ballads, Arabian and Spanish, of love and war and chivalry, are associated with this Oriental pile!”

Gaudí's tribute

Each of these details can be seen in Paseo de Gracia no. 43 in Barcelona. At the top of the building is the main character of the story: the dragon. The roof full of brightly coloured tiles simulates the scales on the animal's back. Nearby is a tall tower protruding from the roof, topped by a four-armed cross. It is located at the top next to the dragon's motionless body because it is the sword with which Sant Jordi killed the beast.

The princess also has her place in this majestic work by Gaudí. Below the roof there is a lonely central balcony. This balcony is the princess's balcony. And it is not the only one, the building is full of them. The balconies in the middle and lower part of the structure represent the eyes of a skull and bones. A symbol of death, after the defeat of the dragon at the hands of Sant Jordi to save the princess. Inside you can see the skeleton of the animal and even its tail.

A beautiful and historic place that commemorates one of the most emblematic and important festivities in the Catalan Community. Every Sant Jordi the streets are filled with flowers, specifically red roses, to celebrate the day of the book and the patron saint of the community. Following the tradition, on 23 April a book and a rose are given and received, although every day of the year, the legend of Sant Jordi of Catalonia is remembered and can be enjoyed by visiting Casa Batlló.

All about Leonor, the future queen of Spain

Leonor de Todos los Santos de Borbón y Ortiz was born in Madrid on the 31^st October 2005. Apart from being the princess of Spain, she also holds the titles of Princess of Asturias, Princess of Girona and Princess of Viana.  She has been the heir to the throne since his father, Felipe VI, became the king of Spain on 19^th June 2014 after the abdication of his own father, Juan Carlos I.

Leonor attended the school of Santa María de los Rosales in Aravaca, Madrid. Her sister Sofía is enrolled there too, just like his father was. Apart from learning English and Mandarin, in 2021 she started a 2-year IB Diploma Programme at the United World College of the Atlantic, in Wales. Her education places great value on developing a set of international skills for her future role as a queen.

2023 is an important year for Princess Leonor. In fact, she is expected to finish her International Baccalaureate in Wales, and she is turning eighteen. Once she becomes of legal age, she has to pledge allegiance to the Spanish Constitution. Moreover, Leonor de Borbón will travel to Asturias to attend the ceremony of the Princess of Asturias Awards, just like every other year. 2023 was her first year of military training as well.

Infanta Sofía of Spain: the younger daughter of the Royal Family

The second daughter of the king and the queen of Spain was born on 29 April 2007, also in Madrid. Sofía de Todos Los Santos de Borbón y Ortiz was named after Sofía of Greece and Denmark, mother of Felipe VI and former queen of Spain. Hence, Infanta Sofía bears the name of her grandmother.

Sofía holds the title of Infante of Spain from birth. It is important to remember that, in Spain, the sons and daughters of the monarchs are not necessarily princes and princesses—in fact, only the heirs to the Crown are. Therefore, we have Princess Leonor, first in line to the throne; and Infanta Sofía, second on the succession line.

Royal blood: the birth and the future of Leonor and Sofía

Only a few people seem to know, even in Spain, a peculiar fact regarding the birth of Leonor and Sofía. Both sisters were born by means of a caesarean section, and Felipe and Letizia made a decision that would lead to some controversy: they asked to extract their daughters’ umbilical cord stem cells and sent them to blood banks.

When the princess and her sister were born, there was a specialist doctor in the room whose job was to collect their umbilical cords. The security measures involved in this process were, of course, worthy of royalty. The cord blood bags were securely sealed and sent to their respective institutions. Leonor’s stem cells are stored at a private blood bank in Tucson, Arizona. When it comes to Sofía, they extracted two separate blood bags from her umbilical cord and they sent them to two different institutions in Europe—a public blood bank in Spain and a private one elsewhere.

“Why would they do that?”, you might ask. Well, from what we know today, the benefits of cord blood banking are still uncertain. A baby’s cord blood can be used to transplant stem cells and tackle potential health problems, and some parents bank their baby’s blood as “biological insurance” against future diseases, but it is only rarely used. Moreover, were there a genetic component to the disease, it would also be in the stem cells.

Either way, there is no doubt that the king and queen of Spain have their eyes on the future of the Crown. All the decisions regarding the health and education of Leonor and Sofía are tailored to the roles they were expected to play from birth, considering they already are representatives of the Royal Family and one of them will be the next person sitting on the Spanish throne. Princess Leonor and Infanta Sofía are the future of the Spanish monarchy, and we will hear more of them as the years go by.

Charles II the Bewitched was always sick as a kid. He struggled with several physical conditions and had difficulties learning. In fact, when his father passed, many people believed that Charles II would not live much longer, and other European countries were already planning how to take advantage of the situation. However, the king would remain on the throne until the end of the century, even though some sustain that he did so while being completely bewitched.

Possessed, bewitched, cursed… what happened to Charles II of Spain?

The last Spanish ruler from the House of Habsburg was cursed twice. First, because his poor health tormented him his whole life. Second, because he was unable to produce an heir. Regarding these facts, as time passed by many came to a conclusion: the king must be bewitched. It must also be noted that this theory was quite convenient for those who wanted to grab a piece of the Spanish crown as soon as he died.

It is also interesting to know that the very monarch believed there was something wrong with his soul. Hence, he sought the aid of confessors, friars, monks and even exorcists to find an explanation for the devil’s presence in his life, as well as a solution to address such a critical situation. According to reports from back then, the devil manifested through some nuns, who were also possessed, to confirm that Charles II was, in fact, haunted by a curse that prevented him from both producing an heir and governing.

It was an Italian friar who, years later, developed a different theory regarding the health issues of the monarch: he was not possessed by the devil, but only bewitched. He pointed at a small bag Charles II always wore around his neck. They later revealed the disturbing content of the bag: toenails and hair, among other essential ingredients of any respectable spell. The king could not remember who gave him this mysterious bag.

Years went by as Charles II of Spain was subject to research and exorcisms, but neither his health nor his inability to produce an heir were fixed. Charles II the Bewitched died with no heirs, and the last Spanish Habsburg has well earned his own nickname since then.

Walt Disney and Mojácar: a three-act tale

This tale begins as the main character, a woman called Isabel Zamora, parts from Mojácar in the early 20^th century. It is uncertain whether she was pregnant or her child was already born. Either way, Zamora’s son was conceived out of wedlock, which was quite a scandalous act at the time. Nobody knew who the father was, but some fingers were pointed at a doctor called José Guirao. In any case, Isabel, a laundress from Mojácar, left for Chicago, where she reunited with his brother. Allegedly, the young woman felt sick and disoriented, so they both decided to give up the child for adoption. End of act I.

The second act takes us forty years forward, back in Mojácar. The inhabitants of the Andalusian village witnessed the arrival of two American men wearing suits, who could not speak a word of Spanish. Nonetheless, they made it pretty clear what they were looking for: they wanted to check the birth certificate of a man called José Guirao Zamora. Reportedly, those men spent a few days going through the municipal archives. If they did find what they were searching for, nobody knows it. Sadly, most documents from that time period got lost during the Spanish Civil War. It is almost as if the man called José Guirao never existed. End of act II.

As usual, the third act is the part that wraps up the plot. However, this story has an open ending for the reader’s own interpretation. This is when the first two acts get intertwined and history becomes legend, mainly due to the fact that it is impossible to ascertain if the tale is actually true. Legend has it that Isabel Zamora gave up her son, José Guirao Zamora, for adoption to a family of farmers whose last name might sound familiar: the Disney family. They already had three kids at the time, and would later on have a fifth one. The child they adopted in between became Walt Disney in 1902. Is it reality or just another urban legend? That we might never know.

To be continued…

As we said, we might never be able to solve this mystery because we lack evidence to come to any decisive conclusion. Perhaps the last sentence of this tale will always be “to be continued”, or perhaps some future research will cast some light on the matter. At the moment, this three-act tale can provide a couple more facts. It is true that we never found the mystery birth certificate in Mojácar, but apparently, Walt Disney’s birth certificate was not found anywhere else either. According to the authorised biography written by Walter’s own daughter, he was born in Chicago in December 1901. However, according to the Town Hall of Mojácar, there is no birth certificate there that can prove this fact. Hence, we could say legend becomes reality now.

This might change if we consider the following information. In 1957, the well-known Spanish journalist Manuel del Arco personally interviewed Walt Disney for the daily newspaper La Vanguardia. Back then, there were already rumours revolving around the fact that it was possible that Walt Disney was born in Spain. According to the Spanish film magazine Primer Plano, both the priest and the major of Mojácar confirmed that Walt Disney was José Guirao and he was born in that village.

When Manuel del Arco interviewed Disney, he asked him about the rumours regarding his Spanish ancestry. Walt Disney’s answer was straight: “I’m half English/Irish and half German, my mother was German, and I was born in Chicago. The word was spread that I was Spanish because they confused me with a fellow artist I have worked with, who was called Zamora”.

These are the facts. However, there will always be different interpretations. What you choose to believe is only up to you.

Juan Carlos I: one king and many presidents

Juan Carlos I, of the House of Bourbon, played an important role in Spain’s international relations during the 20^th century. His reign lasted from 1975 to 2014, and he was succeeded by his son Felipe VI, current king of Spain. With all the conflicts and wars that swept the world in the 20^th century, the monarch’s visits to the United States can tell us many things about the international situation back then.

The first time Juan Carlos I of Spain and the then Queen Sofía of Greece and Denmark visited the States as monarchs was in 1976. Back then, politician Gerald Ford was in his last months of serving as the president of the United States. This trip was particularly meaningful for many reasons, but mainly because it happened only months after the death of Spanish dictator Francisco Franco. During their visit to Washington D.C., the king delivered a speech before the North American Congress, and he pronounced the word “democracy” publicly for the first time.

The next important visit King Juan Carlos I made to the United States took place in 1986. This time, he met with President Ronald Reagan in New York City. However, the list of presidents he shook hands with in the White House goes on and on. For example, he met with President Clinton in 1993. Years later, in 2000, King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofia of Spain attended a State Dinner host by President Bill Clinton and First Lady Hillary Clinton. A fun anecdote regarding said event is the fact that the Queen of Spain stumbled on the stairs and was caught on camera.

In 2001, former King Juan Carlos I met with President George W. Bush at the White House. However, it was a private visit this time, and the National Security Council Spokeswoman Marry Ellen Countryman claimed: “They’re just having tea”. First Lady Laura Bush and Queen Sofia also joined in.

Felipe VI: new king, new bonds

Felipe Juan Pablo Alfonso de Todos los Santos de Borbón y Grecia, better known as Felipe VI, has been the king of Spain since June 2014. Despite his short reign, King Felipe VI has attended many an international event representing the Spanish crown.

His first official visit to the United States as a king happened in September 2014. On that occasion, he met privately with President Barack Obama. In addition, he attended the 2014 UN Climate Summit held in New York on September 23. He was also present at the United Nations General Assembly, and he stated that “It is truly an honor for me to speak for the first time as King of Spain at the UN”.

In 2015, the king’s visit to United States included Mount Vernon, Washington D. C., Miami, St. Augustine and New York. He also visited the Fred W. Smith National Library, the Congress, and the Georgetown University. A highlight of the king’s 2015 visit was his speech at the United Nations Summit on Sustainable Development.

In 2018, Felipe VI met with former President Donald Trump and Paul Ryan, 54th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives. Apart from visiting the White House, King Felipe VI and Queen Letizia went on a five-day tour that took them to New Orleans, Louisiana, and San Antonio, Texas; both cities were celebrating the 300th anniversary of their foundation.

Mayrit’s foundation

It was the second half of the 9th century. The emir decided to build a fortress next to the Manzanares, in an elevated position that would allow them to keep watch of the surroundings, particularly the mountain pass of Guadarrama. This was a key location, among other things, because it connected Zaragoza to Mérida, as well as communicating Segovia with the south of the peninsula. This alcázar was guarded by high walls, and it was built in the current location of the Royal Palace of Madrid. They built the Al-Mudayna or the citadel further to the south, where the common people lived. 

Whereas the Arab fortress was built in the current spot of the Royal Palace, the citadel used to take the place of today’s Almudena Cathedral. In fact, the name “Almudena” comes from “Al-Mudayna”. And it is not the only emblematic element in Madrid whose origin traces back to this time period. Two of the most popular theories regarding the name of Mayrit claim that it comes from the Arabic language. It could be a derivation of the term “mayra”, which means mother or parent, with the suffix “it”, meaning abundance. Alternatively, it could come from “maǧra”, which means stream or watercourse. 

There is another theory held by researcher Jaime Oliver Asín in his book Historia del Nombre de Madrid (“History of Madrid’s name”), which argues that the origin of the Spanish capital’s name actually goes back to a time prior to the arrival of the Muslims, when there was a Visigothic settlement called “matrice”, meaning “mother of water”. However, the research group of Parque Lineal affirms on their website that “there is no evidence of the existence of a vicus or a Visigothic settlement of any kind in medieval Madrid”. Nevertheless, they do admit it is not impossible, since there have been archaeological findings in the area. 

“I was built over water, and fire are my walls”

Whatever the origin of this city’s name, it clearly has something to do with water. In fact, this is one of the reasons why the emir founded Mayrit here in the first place: because this place was surrounded by water streams, which have been buried just as the Muslim past of the capital. 

As a consequence, Mayrit developed a thriving economy in the area, which was improved by the underground channels designed by Arab engineers. This way, water was channelled through pipes, canals, pools and vents right into the heart of the city, where it emerged from fountains and pipes for the people to enjoy. 

“I was built over water, and fire are my walls”, says Madrid’s motto, alluding to the watery reality of the city. The part concerning fire is interesting too. In the Middle Ages, Mayrit was protected by a wall of limestone and flint, a dark quartz that produces sparks when struck. When the city was under attack, the swords and spears that struck the wall produced surprising sparkles, originating the motto we know today. 

The popular Spanish expression “de Madrid al cielo” (“from Madrid to the sky”) has its roots in this time period too. Indeed, astronomy reached its peak in Spain’s capital city thanks to Maslama al-Mayrit, a renowned astronomer and intellectual from the Caliphate of Córdoba who was born in Mayrit. 

A route through Arab Madrid

After 250 years of Arab reign, Mayrit was conquered by Alfonso VI in the 11th century, although many of its former inhabitants were relocated to one of its suburbs: the current neighbourhood of La Latina. It was not until the reign of Felipe II, in the 16th century, that Madrid became the capital of Spain. This marked the beginning of another time period, but it is still related to the remnants of the Arab past we have discussed, since most of those buildings were destroyed then. 

Now there is not much of old Mayrit left. The most remarkable element that has remained is the ruins of its wall, scattered throughout the capital. The park of Muhammad I, next to the Almudena Cathedral on the slope of La Vega, is perhaps the best vestige of that chapter of the country’s history. 

We can find another piece of the fortification in quite an unusual place: the access to a garage under the viaduct of Segovia, in the street of Bailén. In Plaza de Oriente, there are remains of an 11th-century Islamic watchtower resting in a public parking lot. Likewise, the square of Ramales holds an Islamic silo—the last of them. Searching for these secret spots is almost like a puzzle game; hence, there are many tours that will guide us through the fascinating remnants of Mayrit, the seed of the city we know today. 

Ghost stories in Madrid

The most popular supernatural stories in Madrid are related to the ghosts and phantoms inhabiting its streets — or its museums. For instance, the history of the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, or the Reina Sofía Museum, is quite peculiar. It was originally built in the 16th century, with the aim of providing destitute and homeless people with a place to rest. In many cases, they ended up dying there. In 1989, it was officially inaugurated as a hospital. Many people died in that building during its first years as a consequence of different illnesses. So much so, that the hospital workers had to bury their corpses under its soil.  

Hence, when the hospital was turned into a museum, the construction works unearthed human remains. Unexpectedly, three mummified nuns were found in the old hospital chapel too. From the very beginning, the people who worked there noticed a series of unfathomable events, like whispers and screams coming from empty rooms, doors opening and closing by themselves, lifts doing the same, alarm bells suddenly ringing… Even today, it seems like the museum will never get rid of these ghostly apparitions.  

A similar case took place in the palace of Linares. In 1990, the Spanish magazine Tiempo published some recordings that they presented as electronic voice phenomena (EVP). The witnesses claimed that, in said recordings, one could hear three voices belonging to the members of a family that used to live in the building. The most disturbing thing about these recordings is probably the little girl yelling “I don’t have a mum”. The 19th-century castle can be visited today, and it is the current head office of Casa de América. 

The tragedy of the House of the Seven Chimneys

This story can be traced back to the 16th century. It is one of the oldest legends of Madrid and one of the most popular ones too. It is the strange case of the House of the Seven Chimneys, or Casa de las Siete Chimeneas in Spanish. This building is located in the neighbourhood of Chueca, and there used to live the daughter of a servant of King Felipe II. Allegedly, the king and this maiden, whose name was Elena, were involved in a romantic affair. However, she married a captain of his army, but Elena’s husband died in a war against France. From this point on, the story diverges in different versions.   

Some believe that she died of sadness after the dramatic event. Others claimed it was her own father who killed her, but when he died shortly after, this theory became less likely to be true. They conducted a thorough research to break the case, but Elena’s corpse was nowhere to be found. They did search for it, but she was never seen again. 

Many witnesses claim to have seen a young woman walking among the chimneys at night, dressed in white and carrying a torch in her hands. It could be the ghost of Elena, who points her finger at the Alcázar Real, as if signalling the old residence of the king who triggered her tragedy. Either way, the mystery remains unsolved. 

Other supernatural creatures in Madrid and its surroundings

Just like the palace of Linares, the building of Real Casa de Correos has served different purposes throughout the years. It was designed by French architects, which did not sit well among the inhabitants of Madrid. Legend has it that, during its construction, different workers dealt with an unexpected visitor: the very Satan. Apparently, a ghostly voice reminded them that the place belonged to hell. 

Other legends of Madrid tell us about magic and mythical creatures. For instance, the beech forest of Montejo is known to be home to fairies and elves. According to some legends, these magical creatures lived peacefully until humans came and disturbed them. Seemingly, the fae folk decided to transform those disruptive humans into creatures they could live happily with, and thus they became deer, wild boars and herons. The most annoying ones were turned to stone, though. Considering all this, the next time we visit the beech forest of Montejo in Madrid, we will think twice before making a scene.  

A king for only a few families

There have been all kinds of kingdoms throughout history, but the one in Patones might be the strangest one yet. To start with, the fact that they felt the need to have a king of their own is certainly unheard of. 

In order to find the legendary origin of the monarch, one must research both folklore and archives. The first mention of the crown of Patones dates back to the 17th century. In 1653, it was recorded that the cardinal of Moscoso met with the king of Patones. The aim of this meeting was to ask for a chapel. However, if we are to explore folklore, we will need to go way back in time in order to trace the origin of this peculiar monarchy, which seems to be hereditary. 

According to local beliefs, mostly spread in the 18th and 19th centuries thanks to literature and travelog, the kingdom of Patones de Arriba stems from the Visigothic period. Spanish historian Antonio Ponz writes about that in his book Viage de España, en el que se da noticia de las cosas apreciables y dignas de saberse que hay en ellas.

The isolated nature of this town allegedly protected it from the Arabs that conquered the Iberian Peninsula, who did not even find Patones de Arriba. This way, its inhabitants remained safely hidden from the turns of history. Al-Andalus, the conquest, the Reconquista… They did not participate in any of these events. There is probably fiction in the story they tell us, but its isolated condition could definitely have played a significant role in the presence of the elder ruling over the town. Why the called him a king still remains a mystery.  

The fall of the king of Patones

The outcome of this monarchy reigning over a little more than 10 families in Madrid’s Sierra Norte was to be expected. At the end of the day, the world kept spinning and reason prevailed. Times changed. To make matters worse, taxes became a problem. However, it was not all bad. In fact, the town came out stronger. 

The name of the last king of Patones was Juan Prieto, and King Carlos III was his nemesis. Juan Prieto sent a letter from his secluded kingdom to one of the most notorious kings of the House of Bourbon. In that letter, he made two simple yet ambitious requests: to gain independence from Uceda and pay less taxes. These were essentially his requests, although there are different rumors regarding the exact content of the message. Either way, it is certain that they felt abandoned by Uceda, the Villa Patones de Arriba used to belong to. 

Carlos III responded with a two-edged proposition. On the one hand, he granted the town their own government, which created the need for a new leader to manage local affairs. On the other hand, this resulted in the position of the king of Patones to become obsolete, and the role just vanished. All this happened in the late 18th century, but the memory of the king of Patones is still alive in so many ways, and it became one with the legends of this extraordinarily peculiar town.